|
How to Succeed at Science | |
| © Stephen T. Abedon | ||
| contents | success in science | top of page | ||
| last updated on Tuesday, July 28, 1998 |
| 1. | doing well | this page | |
| 2. | SQR4 studying technique | this page | |
| 3. | biology, a unique challenge | this page | |
| 4. | introduction to majors biology | elsewhere | |
| 5. | central contents | elsewhere | |
| 6. | home | elsewhere | |
| 7. | send comments | mail to | |
contents | success in science | top of page
overview | study | time | organization
SQ4R | academic skill enrichment
overview ---
How one studies, like how one spends one's time in general, is a very personal thing. What works for one individual will not necessarily work for another. During the many years that I have taken courses, both in college and in graduate school, I have learned what works for me. Some of these approaches will work for most people, some for a good fraction, others for only a few. The important thing is not to simply do something because it works for others, but to figure out what works for you.
The two biggest mistakes an introductory student will make are (i) not being prepared to put in the amount of time necessary to do well in a difficult class and (ii) not realizing that putting in time and effort are not a substitute for learning.
In short, one purpose of college is the conveyance of a great deal of information, tools, and concepts. The key to success is an enthusiasm for receiving this material. The successful student will put forth an effort to figure out how to increase the effeciency with which they learn.
Below and elsewhere I discuss various strategies which have worked for me. Above all, anything you can do which prevents school from being a chore and instead makes school a fun or rewarding experience will likely go a long way toward your increasing your success.
study ---
good study habits are key:
Some dollop of both intelligence and a willingness to work, both efficiently and hard, is necessary to do well in an undergraduate (especially majors) science courses. This, however, does not mean that it is necessary to be a "super-genius" to earn an A. Particularly, good study habits and dedication to this or any course should go a long way toward improving your standing, your grade, and your GPA.
On the other hand, don't forget that long, boring hours devoted to this or any class are no substitute for actually learning the material.
get on top:
It is always good practice to get on top of all of your courses, beginning as early as possible in a term.
For example, ideally one is on top of all of one's readings by the end of the first weekend of a term.
The most effective big picture study strategy is to put forth the most effort of the entire term towards studying for the first exam. Only for subsequent exams should you adjust effort to better match your grade expectations with expected exam difficulty.
stay on top:
It is equally important to stay on top of your courses.
Rewards, such as doing those things you enjoy, outside of school, are a necessary and important part of your life. However, a successful student realizes that it is far better if one embarks on such activities after successfully studying, rather than instead of studying.
contents | tentative course syllabi | top of page
time ---
jobs take time:
Those who succeed at college, despite simultaneously working long hours to earn a living, are to be admired and congratulated. It isn't easy. That is because successfully completing a full load toward a college science degree is in itself more than a full time job (that is one reason why you are given so much time off between terms).
science courses take more time:
One should spend, minimally, approximately two to three hours a week dedicated to a course, above and beyond time spent in the classroom, for every lecture (or credit) hour associated with a science course.
Thus, for a 4 credit hour course one should make sure that one can devote about eight hours per week (at an absolute minimum) to efficient study for that course alone (and the key words here are minimum and efficient).
only so much time:
Students who a priori don't have sufficient time to devote to their course work are either very intelligent, very efficient, or fooling themselves about their ability to succeed in undergraduate science. If success in undergraduate science is important to you, and having a job interferes with your ability to succeed, then the choices are obvious: take fewer classes, work less, or don't do as well in one, both, or all persuits than you would otherwise prefer.
contents | tentative course syllabi | top of page
organization ---
organize/discriminate:
Doing well in a course often involves more than simply coming to class, taking notes, and then studying for exams. To study efficiently one must first gather up all relevant information into a comfortable form.
It is part of one's training as a college student to learn how to efficiently extract the important aspects of the material presented from those which are of less immediate importance. It is then extremely helpful if one organizes that material in some manner. Only then is one ready to actually start studying for an exam.
don't put things off until last moment:
The best time to organize notes and other relevant material is sooner rather than at the last moment (when time is best spent learning or relearning the material for an exam). Take some time each day to organize the notes you've taken and integrate them with other material you have encountered. That will go a long way toward success on an exam.
If nothing else it takes time to build the neural connections required by your brain for you to actually know the material.
contents | tentative course syllabi | top of page
Services available at the John Conard Learning Center at OSU-Mansfield include academic skill enrichment.
Students may request assistance with:
Students may also improve their performance in current courses by coming to the center for individual academic counseling - including one-to-one sessions using their lecture notes to develop more meaningful organization and exam preparation tools. They may wish to study in the center to gain easier access to the staff for immediate assistance. Workshops on Cornell Notetaking and on Test taking will be announced . . . for the general student body.
The Conard learning center can be found on the first floor of the new Bromfield annex.
contents | success in science | top of page
introduction |
time management and study environment |
making the most of lectures
studying the textbook |
preparing for examinations |
further reading
introduction ---
This section is quoted from Prescott, L. M., Harley, J. P., and Klein, D. A. (1996, Microbiology Third Edition, Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa, pp. xxxi-xxxii), starting with the following paragraph.
One of the most important factors contributing to success in college, and in (biology) courses, is the use of good study techniques. . . (T)his section briefly outlines some practical study skills that will help ensure success in (biology) and make your use of (your) textbook more productive. Many of you already have the study skills mentioned here and will not need to spend time reviewing familiar material. These suggestions are made in the hope that they may be useful to those who are unaware of approaches like the SQ4R technique for studying textbooks.
contents | success in science | top of page
time management and study environment ---
Many students find it difficult to study effectively because of a lack of time management and a proper place to study. Often students will do poorly in courses because not enough time has been spent studying outside class. For best results you should plan to spend at least an average of four to eight hours a week outside class working on each course. There is sufficient time in the week for this, but it does require time management. If you spend a few minutes early in the morning planning how the day is to be used and allow adequate time for studying, much more will be accomplished. Students who make efficient use of every moment find that they have plenty of time for recreation.
A second important factor is a proper place to study so that you can concentrate and efficiently use your study time. Try to find a quiet location with a desk and adequate lighting. If possible, always study in the same place and use it only for studying. In this way you will be mentally prepared to study when you are at your desk. This location may be in the dorm, the library, a special study room, or somewhere else. Wherever it is, your study area should be free from distractions---including friends who drop by to socialize. Much more will be accomplished if you really study during your designated study times.
contents | success in science | top of page
making the most of lectures ---
Attendance at lectures is essential for success. Students who chronically miss classes usually do not do well. To gain the most from lectures, it is best to read any relevant text material before-hand.
Be prepared to concentrate during lectures; do not simply sit back passively and listen to the instructor. During the lecture record your notes in a legible way so that you can understand them later. It is most efficient to employ an outline or simple paragraph format. The use of abbreviations of some type of shorthand notation often is effective. During lecture concentrate on what is being said and be sure to capture all of the main ideas, concepts, and definitions of important terms. Do not take sketchy notes assuming that you will remember things because they are easy or obvious; you won't. Diagrams, lists, and terms written on the board are almost always important, as is anything the instructor clearly emphasizes by tone of voice.
Feel free to ask questions during class when you don't understand something or wish the instructor to pursue a point further. Remember that it you don't understand, it is very likely that others in the class don't either but simply aren't willing to show their confusion.
As soon as possible after a lecture, carefully review your notes to be certain that they are complete and understandable. Refer to the textbook when uncertain about something in your notes; it will be invaluable in clearing up questions and amplifying major points. When studying your notes for exams, it is a good idea to emphasize the most important points with a felt-tip marker just as you would when reading the textbook.
contents | success in science | top of page
Your textbook is one of the most important learning tools in any course and should be very carefully and conscientiously used. Many years ago Francis P. Robinson developed a very effective study technique called SQ3R (survey, question, read, recite, and review). More recently L. L. Thistlewaite and N. K. Snouffer have slightly modified it to yield the SQ4R approach (survey, question, read, revise, record, and review). This latter approach is summarized below.
survey. Briefly scan the chapter to become familiar with its general content. Quickly read the title, introduction, summary, and main headings. Record the major ideas and points that you think the chapter will make. If there are a list of chapter concepts and a chapter outline, pay close attention to these. This survey should give you a feel for the topic and how the chapter is approaching it.
question. As you reach each main heading or subheading, try to compose an important question or two that you believe the section will answer. This preview question will help focus your reading of the section. It is also a good idea to keep asking yourself questions as you read. This habit facilitates active reading and learning. (This bascially is an aid to allow you to better distinguish important points from extraneous detail; if you start reading a section with some idea of where the section ought to lead, it is much easier to distinguish what you want to learn from what you want to put aside for now---of course, this is not nearly as doable with material which is completely new to you as it is with material which you have had some experience with.)
read. Carefully read the section. Read to understand concepts and major points, and try to find the answer to your preview question(s). You may want to highlight very important terms or explanations of concepts, but do not indiscriminately highlight everything. Be sure to pay close attention to any terms printed in color or boldface since the author(s) considered these to be important.
revise. After reading the section, revise your question(s) to more accurately reflect the section's contents. These questions should be concept type questions that force you to bring together a number of details. They can be written in the margins of your text.
record. Underline the information in the text that answers your questions, if you have not already done so. You may wish to write down the answers in note form as well. This process will give you good material to use in preparing for exams.
review. Review the information by trying to answer your questions without looking at the text. If the text has a list of key words and a set of study questions, be sure to use these in your review. You will retain much more if you review the material several times.
contents | success in science | top of page
preparing for examinations ---
It is extremely important to prepare for examinations properly so that you will not be rushed and tired on examination day. All textbook reading and lecture note revision should be completed well ahead of time so that the last few days can be spent in mastering the material, not in trying to understand basic concepts.
Cramming at the last moment for an exam is no substitute for daily preparation and review.
By managing time carefully and keeping up with your studies, you will have plenty of time to review thoroughly and clear up any questions. This will allow you to get sufficient rest before the exam and to feel confident in your preparation. Because both physical condition and general attitude are important factors in exam performance, you will automatically do better. Proper reviewing techniques also aid retention of the material.
contents | success in science | top of page
further reading ---
Grassick, P. 1983. Making the Grade: How to Score High on all Scholastic Tests. New York: Arco.
Shaw, H. 1976. 30 Ways to Improve Your Grades. New York: McGraw-Hill.
contents | success in science | top of page
overview |
introduction to biology |
biology is chemistry (and physics)
biology is hard |
biology's central themes |
testing for specifics |
grades are not your worth
overview ---
In this section I present a few essays that you may or may not find relevant to this course. They represent some hard won understanding by this instructor on both the taking and the teaching of biology. Particularly, they represent part of my attempt to deal with the lack of preparation students so typically have for the difficulties we all have and which are inherently involved in learning modern biology. I present them to you for whatever they're worth.
contents | success in science | top of page
The Ohio State University has no less than six colleges devoted to the subject of biology: The College of Biological Sciences, The College of Agriculture, The College of Medicine, The College of Optometry, The College of Pharmacy, and The College of Veterinary Medicine. Indeed, of all the disciplines we humans hold any hope of developing a profound scientific understanding, biology is, by far and away, the most complex. Furthermore, detailed knowledge of biology, and its processes, is essential for gaining a knowledgable understanding of ourselves, of our planet, of the world of life, of our place in the universe, and of the various means by which one may modify one's lifestyle to enchance long term survival, both personal and societal. In short, individuals, populations, species, ecosystems, and civilizations are all born, all live, and then all die, all within profound constraints dictated by their biology. These constraints are real, they are knowable, and they are grounded in unalterable attributes of physics, chemistry, and population dynamics. Biology is the study of all of this.
contents | success in science | top of page
biology is chemistry (and physics) ---
In high school, one is traditionally exposed (if one is lucky as well as sufficiently motivated) to the sciences of biology, chemistry, and then physics. This order, of course, is the reverse of the natural progression by which these sciences should be introduced, since chemistry builds upon physics while biology builds upon both chemistry and physics. Things fair little better in the university. As a consequence, one must learn rudimentary physics while taking one's chemistry (since, in all likelihood, one takes chemistry prior to taking physics) and one must learn rudimentary chemistry and physics while taking one's biology (since, in all likelihood, one takes biology either prior to or, more likely, prior to completing one's chemistry).
Why? This traditional order was laid down prior to the synthesis of chemistry with physics, and biology with both physics and (especially) chemistry. That is, once upon a time biology could be taught without first establishing a firm foundation in chemistry (and physics). And, in fact, in high schools this deceit is propagated through the teaching of biology without significant reference to chemistry, much less physics (advance placement biology excepted, of course). Thus, a traditional progression may be maintained and, in fact, this progression is justified by teaching biology without reference to chemistry and physics (and employing at best only rudimentary arithmetic). Chemistry may be taught the following year complete with a review of the necessary physics (plus a demand that the student be skilled at the application of rudimentary algebra). Finally, physics may (and, often, may not) be taught complete with a requirement that the student employ slightly more sophisticated mathematical skills.
What is lost among all of this is the fact that biology cannot be taught nor understood without delving rather deeply into the realm of chemistry. Those used to thinking in terms of chemistry being "harder" than biology (and physics harder still) may be rudely shocked to find that biology, basically, is the study of the chemistry and physics of living things.
contents | success in science | top of page
biology is hard ---
Many college-bound individuals who are interested in science and considering the three basics---biology, chemistry, and physics---often picture the difficulty of these subjects in just that order, biology is considered to be the easier, chemistry more difficult, and physics most difficult of all.
In fact, this ranking roughly follows the mathematical intensity of general biology, general chemistry, and general physics, with general biology requiring little mathematical skill, general chemistry considerably more mathematical skill, and general physics more still. And this is a very realistic view of these subjects.
What is often overlooked is that the reason that chemistry employs less math than does physics is because chemistry fundamentally is more difficult than physics (i.e., has more uncontrolled variables). Similarly, the reason that biology can be taught in a very mathematics unintensive manner is that biology is fundamentally more difficult than chemistry as well as physics. Stated another way, excluding the mathematics involved (i.e., independent of the mathematics), biology is the more difficult of these three basic sciences.
A college freshman who is interested in science and is exceptionally good at math should find general physics to be relatively easy, general chemistry perhaps slightly harder, and biology completely unrelated to this individual's stated talent. Bottom line: if you are taking a course in introductory biology and expecting it to be easier than introductory chemistry (or physics), solely because biology is less math intensive, you will be only half correct, because you will be considering only half of the equation. The truth instead is that introductory biology is more difficult in every respect except mathematically.
contents | success in science | top of page
biology's central themes (by Paul Hyman) ---
Understanding biological processes requires multidisciplinary knowledge, understanding, and synthesis. Means of acquiring and processing this knowledge vary. One approach is to explore a common theme across different biological systems, often ranging from very small scales (physical/chemical) through very large scales (our entire planet), from species to species or from ecosystem to ecosystem. If one assumes that the biological sciences are defined by a finite number of more or less universal themes, then it is possible to attempt to actually list and then discuss these themes. As follows, five themes central to an understanding of the biological sciences are introduced: (i) energy, (ii) structure, (iii) responsiveness, (iv) information, and (v) chance.
(i) energy:
All biologic processes require energy that is ultimately derived from non-biological sources. While certain steps can occur without further energy expenditure (i.e. viral capsid self-assembly), these steps rely on previous energy consumption. Nearly all multicellular organisms rely directly on solar energy (photosynthesis) or material created by photosynthesizers. The major known exceptions are sea vent communities whose basis are thermophilic bacteria that utilize inorganic chemical energy (as do many other types of bacteria). The most basic, central theme to biology is the movement and use of energy through and by biological systems.
(ii) structure:
In nearly all organisms, molecular events do not take place in unstructured environments. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells are structured, divided into compartments and subcompartments. These structures form the basis of control of many processes. The best known of these is the cell and cell organelle membranes. In mitochondria, for example, generation of energy requires the passing of atoms and electrons back and forth across the mitochondrial membrane. Neuron firing is another example of this. At the biomolecular level, the same thing is true. Protein activity requires the correct structural orientation of the amino acid subunits of the protein. Particular side chains must be in the correct position for the protein to function. Control of protein folding may be inherent in the protein structure itself but may also require structural interactions with external molecules such as metal ions or chaperonins. Processes are compartmentalized for greater efficiency. In the nucleus, expression of ribosomal genes occurs in the nucleolus. Gene expression in general, as well as DNA synthesis appears to be controlled in part by the nuclear matrix. On the macro level, organs in multicellular organisms represent structures of specialization within the body.
(iii) responsiveness:
At the biochemical level, all processes are divided into many steps. This division allows for a fine control of biological processes, down to individual atoms. Nearly every step of biochemical pathways are controlled by enzymes, and enzymes can be activated or inactivated as required by the cell. Many control mechanisms interact to give cells and/or organisms a variety of responses to different signals from their external/internal environment. Examples of this are signal transduction and signaling during developmental. By using feedback loops, both individual cells and whole organisms are able to sense and maintain themselves in constant states; a process called homeostasis.
(iv) information:
Organisms have two sources of information - genes and environment (nature and nurture). Both of these act to affect the organism's behavior/development. The relative contribution of each varies from situation to situation. Genetic information is inherited but is subject to change. Changes may be random (mutations) or, in rare cases, directed (blood cell development in which specific genetic changes lead to new gene expression in both red and white blood cells). In any population which is not genetically identical (essentially all real world populations), over time evolution by reproductive competition/natural selection will occur (i.e. Darwinian evolution). Natural selection is the means by which environmental information is transduced into genetic information.
(v) chance:
Because they are chemical processes, biochemical events occur via probabilistic mechanisms, not deterministic. This is true of higher level events as well. Thus, nearly all viruses have minimal infectious doses of greater than one virus (the principle exception being some bacteriophages for whom infecting a single cell is the same as infecting the entire host). Likewise, neuron depolarization has a threshold for the strength of the activating signal. Additionally, many biological processes and events are multi-locus in cause resulting in single inputs having only a probability of leading to a particular outcome. Examples are inherited gene mutations with less than 100% penetrance. A specific example is the retinoblastoma (Rb) gene in which inheriting a single mutated copy and a single normal copy leads to a specific probability of developing retinoblastoma which increases with time. Less well understood examples include genes which appear to be associated with human conditions such as alcoholism and schizophrenia. It is also important to remember that environmental factors will interact with genetic factors. This is thought to be the basis behind the development of several autoimmune diseases in which particular genotypes predispose an individual to the disease but exposure to particular antigens is also required to trigger the disease's appearance in a particular individual. Probabilistic rules alos underlie various evolutionary mechanisms.
contents | success in science | top of page
Yet another reason why Biology is often perceived as an "easier" science than either Chemistry or Physics may have to do with traditions of testing. Particularly, there are two testing strategies which represent extremes of difficulty (at least according to some): essays and problems. The former is difficult because degree of recall as well as integration is highly rewarded, thus forcing the student to pay attention to everything, attempt to integrate everything, and then be prepared for essay questions which might be on just about anything (of course, essay questions assigned prior to exams and ones in which some minimal demonstration of competence achieves maximal credit require somewhat less effort on the part of the student). From the point of view of the instructor, essays are relatively effortless to author (though the same cannot be said for their grading) since the exact details of what information was supplied to students need not be recalled until, essentially, after the exam is over. Furthermore, even if details were not presented in the classroom, essay questions reward the gathering of information outside of the classroom (e.g., from one's assigned readings). This further reduces the need for the instructor to accurately recall exactly what was and was not stated during lectures. (Non-essay-type exam questions, of course, need not be limited to material covered in lectures, thus easing the instructor's burden, but indiscriminate testing on material derived both from reading and lectures hardly results in tests being percieved, by students, as significantly less difficult than the essay-type exam questions discussed above.)
Problems requiring an application of mathematics are considered extremely difficult by those who are intimidated by mathematics. Problems not requiring an application of mathematics, however, may require even more thinking than those which do require mathematical solutions. Consequentely, especially for the mathematically confident, problems which cannot be solved numerically may be perceived as more difficult than problem questions which may be reduced to, for example, plugging numbers into formulas (in fact, the latter are indeed often less difficult). In courses which rely extensively on problem sets (e.g., math, chemistry, and physics) it is nevertheless facile for instructors to recall nearly exactly what the student is responsible for since this essentially is synonymous with "demonstrated ability to solve assigned and similar problems." (In addition, these fields tend to have relatively narrow traditions of what material ought to be or needs to be covered in introductory courses.) Consequently, once again the student is faced with a difficult task while the instructor's task, at least prior to grading, is less taxing than it otherwise might be (e.g., below).
Then there are all of the courses which have traditions of not employing essay-type questions (because emphasis may be on learning specific facts rather than on their synthesis or the amount of material covered might preclude effective synthesis). There are also many courses which traditionally do not employ problem sets (because material tends not to be suited, for example, to quantification or mathematical manipulation). Courses where neither essays nor problems are traditionally employed can still employ difficult testing strategies, but such strategies turn out to require much more pre-examination input by the instructor than do essays, problems, questions indiscriminately taken from assigned reading, or more general questions. As a result, such intermediate-type courses (neither essays nor problems) often result, rightly, in being, as well as being perceived by students, as easy. Indeed, under various circumstances the amount of information that students are presented may be sufficiently slight that such courses are by default easy unless syntheses, in addition to memorization, is demanded by the instructor. Furthermore, especially on final exams, it is just not necessarily simple for the instructor to faithfully recall exactly what was stated over the course of a term and, consequently, final exam questions have a tendency to become more general (and easier) still (and, of course, expected to be that way by students who have been exposed to little else).
Finally, we have introductory biology, which represents a situation in which a grasp of both concepts and a certain level of detail is essential, as is both understanding and some degree of synthesis. Ideally, then, major's biology exams would consist of essay questions. However, for many biology instructors, the type of examinations in chemistry and physics are held to a higher ideal than are those of, for example, history and philosophy (no doubt this is more a consequence of laziness on the part of the instructor than anything lacking in these latter two subjects--similarly, multiple choice and true and false questions are much simpler to grade than fill-in-the-blank questions which in turn are easier to correct than short answer questions). Consequently, the effort necessary to produce a biology exam, one which actually forces biology majors to learn all of the material they ought to be learning, is not trivial. Furthermore, unless the biology course is a serious one, there is a tendency to not go through a high degree of effort in writing exams, and therefore exams will typically be easier than those seen, for example, in non-majors chemistry or physics. Thus, for yet another reason there exists an artifact which results in beginning students before-the-fact perceiving biology as an easier science to learn than either, for example, chemistry or physics.
But can you imagine how easy chemistry and physics would be if learning these subjects required no use of mathematics and if instructors limited their exam questions to just general overviews of the material covered? Do you really expect that this is what learning biology is all about?
contents | success in science | top of page
grades are not your worth (by Glenn A. Marvin) ---
Grades have nothing to do with your worth as a human being. Your grade is a number, but you are not. The exams are usually difficult but they are not a test of your intelligence. You should never judge your own worth and your worth to others based upon a grade. We all have a tendency to do that, but it is silly, self-defeating and destructive to do so. The one and only thing that matters is your effort. If you have made your maximum effort, then what more can be asked of you, even by you? If grades are somehow important to you, then they are your responsibility. The amount of information in the course, or level of difficulty of exams can not be altered in order to adjust the grades in (a) course. There are of course those who sometimes attempt to shift the responsibility for their grades from themselves to the course or instructor by complaining about course content and exam difficulty. I listen sympathetically, but my obligation is not to your grade, but to you, and to any individuals you wish to help with this information.
contents | success in science | top of page
Contact Dr. Abedon (abedon.1@osu.edu) with suggestions, criticisms,
comments, or anything else that might help make this a better site.