Beg News, final quarterly issue

Bacteriophage Ecology Group News

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

@ www.phage.org

by Stephen T. Abedon (editor)

December 1, 2006 issue (#25)

Stephen T. Abedon, The Ohio State University

Bacteriophage Ecology Group News (BEG News) 25

In this day of search engines—and increasing expectation by students, the public, and academics alike for finding answers to questions online—an effective, dynamic, and permanent presence on the World Wide Web is important, if not crucial, for the maintenance of coherence, efficiency, effectiveness, and outreach by academic disciplines. Phage ecology is one such discipline, and toward establishing a web presence we have BEG and BEG News. Unfortunately, as the absence of BEG News from your lives for over a year and a half is testament, maintaining a web presence, especially by one person, is pretty difficult and time consuming. It also places the online “defining” of a discipline into too few hands, plus lacks a certain permanence that academics prefer, and should demand. Who, after all, is going to keep BEG alive after I’m gone?

In effect, every discipline faces these problems, and some no doubt have solved them. Solutions, however, tend to be ad hoc. Should every academic discipline re-invent the wheel to develop their own, personal online presence? Should we all be hiring IT people to produce technologically effective web sites that we then endow and seek to maintain for eternity? Should we all just sit on information that might otherwise be useful to our colleagues—knowledge of patents, interesting web sites, obscure references, laboratory subtleties, etc.—just because they are not readily published in traditional venues? To all these questions I say, “No!”. Publishing is (very) important but still is a very limited means of disseminating information. Combinations of mailing and photocopying (or mimeographing) have been employed in the past to transcend the problem that we can’t publish everything, and that we can accomplish only so much in terms of information dissemination through travel, such as to meetings. Personal web pages, or even those of societies, have supplanted earlier, paper-based attempts at self publishing, and are hugely powerful due to modern search engines. Nevertheless, personal web pages suffer from the problems outlined above: Too few people are responsible for maintaining (too-little) information that is too labile and otherwise impermanent.

The next generation of online-information generators, whether you realize it or not, is you. The future of online information dissemination, especially from the perspective of public outreach, but also in terms of student access and exchange among academics, is user-modifiable publishing. Imagine a world in which every publication in an academic discipline was listed online, perhaps in an annotated form, with links to full-text versions? A page that you or anybody else could use. A page that you or anybody else could update, with new publications, or new recipes, or with the addition of an (ideally) improved perspective. Imagine a seamless flow of information, a way of combining all of those many course sites (Bio 101!) that so many of us have worked so hard to develop. Imagine not having to develop ad hoc the technology to make all of this possible. Imagine a place where 10s or more hours of work toward improving the public face of your discipline aren’t destined to be lost at the whims of your department’s computer tech consultant!

All of the technology and great ideas which address many of the problems outlined above are, in principle, solvable. Wikipedia, an online, user-updateable and editable encyclopedia points the way toward the future of less-formal (i.e., other than traditionally published) online scholarship. Technology that is preexisting and easy to use. Unfortunately, its power is damped, enormously, by its strength: Everybody can add information (which, given sufficient volume, can be overwhelming if that information is garbage) and, perhaps more importantly, whole entries can be irretrievably deleted. Nevertheless, I am an optimist and, so far, am of the opinion that these problems, grave as they may be, in fact can be surmounted. Therefore, this essay—and this issue of BEG News— is more about a realistic push for using and contributing to Wikipedia, rather than a call for snubbing it. Thus, I encourage you to visit and contribute to a number of Wikipedia pages that have phage-, phage ecology-, or, more generally, microbial population biology-related themes, which may be found through these Wikipedia “Category” pages:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Bacteriophage

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Phage_workers

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Microbial_population_biology

Farther down in this issue of BEG News I also present earlier (though slightly updated) copies of some of the pages that may be reached via the above list, ones for which I was either nearly entirely responsible for creating or did in collaboration outside of Wikipedia (and therefore feel reasonably secure in my right to reproduce them):

Page presented here	Wikipedia link
Phage Ecology	http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phage_ecology
Phage Monographs	http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phage_monographs
Phage Experimental Evolution	http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phage_experimental_evolution
Cyanophage	http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanophage

I place copies of these pages here, in this issue of BEG News, so that you will be able to get a sense of what Wikipedia is all about without having to actually click on a link (or two!) to get there. But please, do go to the Wikipedia versions. In fact, if only for the sake of assuring its survival, if you do nothing else, please go to (and contribute to) this page:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phage_meetings

It is crazy that academia has not developed an effective, universal means of disseminating information via the World Wide Web, or maybe we have. Movement is afoot to create a Wikipedia “fork”, called Citizendium (www.citizendium.org), which just may succeed in addressing this lapse while simultaneously subduing Wikipiedia’s more anti-academic tendencies (though, of course, we shall see). Already in existence are a number “private” Wiki-like sites such as those provided by OpenWetWare, where by “private” I mean that these are not open to modification by everybody (that is, of course, not by you). OpenWetWare in particular exists more as a means of within-group communication rather than for the sake of widespread information dissemination to the general public (the latter, of course, is what I and BEG are all about). So please support the phage and phage-ecology presence on Wikipedia—as the best user-modifiable phage web site that we currently have—by using, contributing to, and expanding upon the existing phage and phage ecology entries.

Only you can help create and maintain an effective online phage presence.

Other items found in this issue of BEG News

are a list of new BEG members

and a list of new phage ecology references (with abstracts).

Phage Ecology

Stephen T. Abedon [1], The Ohio State University

Bacteriophage Ecology Group News (BEG News) 25

The following is my first Wikipedia effort. Feel free to add to the Wikipedia version, found at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phage_ecology.

(equivalent to Wikipedia version as of Saturday, October 21, 2006)

Bacteriophage (phage) are the viruses of bacteria (more generally, of prokaryotes^[1]), and phage ecology is the study of the interaction of bacteriophage with their environments.^[2]

Introduction to phage ecology

Vastness of phage ecology

Studying phage ecology

Phage "organismal" ecology

Historical overview

Methods

Phage population ecology

Phage community ecology

Phage ecosystem ecology

External links

Introduction to phage ecology

Vastness of phage ecology

Phage are obligate intracellular parasites meaning that they are able to reproduce only while infecting bacteria. Phage therefore are found only within environments that contain bacteria. Most environments contain bacteria, including our own bodies (there called normal flora). Often these bacteria are found in large numbers[1]. As a consequence, phage are found almost everywhere.

As a rule of thumb, many phage biologists expect that phage population densities will exceed bacterial densities by a ratio of 10-to-1 or more (VBR or virus-to-bacterium ratio; see [2] for a summary of actual data). As there exist estimates of bacterial numbers on Earth of approximately 10³⁰[3], there consequently is an expectation that 10³¹ or more individual virus (mostly phage[4]) particles exist[5], making phage the most numerous category of "organisms" on our planet.

Bacteria (along with archaeabacteria) appear to be highly diverse and there likely are millions of species[6]. Phage-ecological interactions therefore are quantitatively vast: huge numbers of intereactions. Phage-ecological interations are also qualitatively diverse: There are huge numbers of environment types, bacterial-host types[7], and also individual phage types [8]).

Studying phage ecology

The scale of phage ecology is at once both exhilarating and intimidating. As a guiding principle toward understanding phage ecology we therefore seek generalizations, plus look to more established scientific disciplines for guidance, the most obvious being general ecology. Toward that end we can speak of phage "organismal" ecology, population ecology, community ecology, and ecosystem ecology. Phage ecology from these perspectives will be described in turn (re: links in previous sentence).

Phage ecology also may be considered (though mostly less well formally explored) from perspectives of phage behavioral ecology, evolutionary ecology, functional ecology, landscape ecology, mathematical ecology, molecular ecology, physiological ecology (or ecophysiology), and spatial ecology. Phage ecology additionally draws (extensively) from microbiology, particularly in terms of environmental microbiology, but also from an enormous catalog (90 years) of study of phage and phage-bacterial interactions in terms of their physiology and, especially, their molecular biology.

Suggestions for further reading are provided below.

Phage "organismal" ecology

Phage "organismal" ecology is primarily the study of the evolutionary ecological impact of phage growth parameters:

latent period, plus

eclipse period (or simply "eclipse")

rise period (or simply "rise")

burst size, plus

rate of intracellular phage-progeny maturation

adsorption constant, plus

rates of virion diffusion

virion decay (inactivation) rates

host range, plus

resistance to restriction

resistance to abortive infection

various temperate-phage properties, including

rates of reduction to lysogeny

rates of lysogen induction

the tendency of at least some phage to enter into (and then subsequently leave) a not very well understood state known (inconsistently) as pseudolysogeny

Another way of envisioning phage "organismal" ecology is that it is the study of phage adaptations that contribute to phage survival and transmission to new hosts or environments. Phage "organismal" ecology is the most closely aligned of phage ecology disciplines with the classical molecular and molecular genetic analyses of bacteriophage.

From the perspective of ecological subdisciplines, we can also consider phage behavioral ecology, functional ecology, and physiological ecology under the heading of phage "organismal" ecology. However, as noted, these subdisciplines are not as well developed as more general considerations of phage "organismal" ecology. Phage growth parameters often evolve over the course of phage experimental adaptation studies.

Suggestions for further reading are provided below.

Historical overview

In the mid 1910s, when phage were first discovered, the concept of phage was very much a whole-culture phenomenon (like much of microbiology^[3]), where various types of bacterial cultures (on solid media, in broth) were visibly cleared by phage action. Though from the start there was some sense, especially by Fėlix d'Hėrelle, that phage consisted of individual "organisms", in fact it wasn't until the late 1930s through the 1940s that phage were studied, with rigor, as individuals, e.g., by electron microscopy and single-step growth experiments (example of latter). Note, though, that for practical reasons much of "organismal" phage study is of their properties in bulk culture (many phage) rather than the properties of individual phage virions or or individual infections.

This somewhat whole-organismal view of phage biology saw its heyday during the 1940s and 1950s, before giving way to much more biochemical, molecular genetic, and molecular biological analyses of phage, as seen during the 1960s and onward. This shift, paralleled in much of the rest of microbiology[9], represented a retreat from a much more ecological view of phages (first as bacterial killers, and then as organisms unto themselves). However, the organismal view of phage biology lives on as a foundation of phage ecological understanding. Indeed, it represents a key thread that ties together the ecological thinking on phage ecology with the more "modern" considerations of phage as molecular model systems.

Methods

The basic experimental toolkit of phage "organismal" ecology consists of the single-step growth (or one-step growth; example) experiment and the phage adsorption curve (example). Single-step growth is a means of determining the phage latent period (example), which is approximately equivalent (depending on how it is defined) to the phage period of infection. Single-step growth experiments also are employed to determine a phage's burst size, which is the number of phage (on average) that are produced per phage-infected bacterium.

The adsorption curve is obtained by measuring the rate at which phage virion particles (see [10]) attach to bacteria. This is usually done by separating free phage from phage-infected bacteria in some manner so that either the loss of not currently infecting (free) phage or the gain of infected bacteria may be measured over time.

Suggestions for further reading are provided below.

Phage population ecology

A population is a group of individuals which either do or can interbreed or, if incapable of interbreeding, then are recently derived from a single individual (a clonal population). Population ecology considers characteristics that are apparent in populations of individuals but either are not apparent or are much less apparent among individuals. These characteristics include so-called intraspecific interactions, that is between individuals making up the same population, and can include competition as well as cooperation. Competition can be either in terms of rates of population growth (as seen especially at lower population densities in resource-rich environments) or in terms of retention of population sizes (seen especially at higher population densities where individuals are directly competing over limited resources). Respectively, these are population-density independent and dependent effects.

Phage population ecology considers issues of rates of phage population growth, but also phage-phage interactions as can occur when two or more phage adsorb an individual bacterium.

Suggestions for further reading are provided below.

Phage community ecology

A community consists of all of the biological individuals found within a given environment (more formally, within an ecosystem), particularly when more than one species is present. Community ecology studies those characteristics of communities that either are not apparent or which are much less apparent if a community consists of only a single population. Community ecology thus deals with interspecific interactions. Interspecific interactions, like intraspecific interactions, can range from cooperative to competitive but also to quite antagonistic (as are seen, for example, with predator-prey interactions). An important consequence of these interactions is coevolution.

The interaction of phage with bacteria is the primary concern of phage community ecologists. Phage, however, are capable of interacting with species other than bacteria, e.g., such as phage-encoded exotoxin interaction with animals [11]. Phage therapy is an example of applied phage community ecology.

Suggestions for further reading are provided below.

Phage ecosystem ecology

An ecosystem consists of both the biotic and abiotic components of an environment. Abiotic entities are not alive and so an ecosystem essentially is a community combined with the non-living environment within which that ecosystem exists. Ecosystem ecology naturally differs from community ecology in terms of the impact of the community on these abiotic entities, and vice versa. In practice, the portion of the abiotic environment of most concern to ecosystem ecologists is inorganic nutrients and energy.

Phage impact the movement of nutrients and energy within ecosystems primarily by lysing bacteria. Phage can also impact abiotic factors via the encoding of exotoxins (a subset of which are capable of solubilizing the biological tissues of living animals [12]). Phage ecosystem ecologists are primarily concerned with the phage impact on the global carbon cycle, especially within the context of a phenomenon know as the microbial loop.

Suggestions for further reading are provided below.

External links

The Bacteriophage Ecology Group (BEG): Home of Phage Ecology and Phage Evolutionary Biology (www.phage.org)

The Virus Ecology Group (VEG)

Notes

^ The term "prokaryotes" is useful to mean the sum of the bacteria and archaeabacteria but otherwise can be controversial, as discussed by Woese, 2004; see also pp. 103-104 of Woese, C. R. 2005. Evolving biological organization, p. 99-118. In J. Sapp (ed.), Microbial Phylogeny and Evolution Concepts and Controversies. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

^ This article on phage ecology was expanded from a stub during the writing of the first chapter of the edited monograph, Bacteriophage Ecology (forecasted publication date: 2007, Cambridge University Press), in order to be cited by that chapter especially as a repository of phage ecology review chapters and articles.

^ Summers, W. C. 1991. From culture as organisms to organisms as cell: historical origins of bacterial genetics. J. Hist. Biol. 24:171-190.

^ Many PDF- (or, alternatively, html-) based articles are online through PubMed or via the web sites of open access journals such as those published by BioMed Central. Alternatively, they may be posted on "private" web sites (perhaps in copyright violation) by authors or other individuals. Consequently, it is often possible to find an article by doing a Google search on article titles. You can sometimes increase useful hits by placing titles in quotes, adding author names (outside of quotes), or by limiting searches to PDF documents only.

Phage Monographs

Stephen T. Abedon [2], The Ohio State University

Bacteriophage Ecology Group News (BEG News) 25

The following is my second Wikipedia effort. Feel free to add to the Wikipedia version, found at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phage_monographs

(equivalent to Wikipedia version as of Saturday, October 21, 2006)

Bacteriophage (phage) are viruses of bacteria. The history of this discipline is captured, in part, in the books published on the topic. Presented is a list of 100-plus phage or phage-related monographs

History of list

Editing list

List of phage monographs (descending date order)

Books published in the 2000s

Books published in the 1990s

Books published in the 1980s

Books published in the 1970s

Books published in the 1960s

Books published in the 1950s

Books published in the 1940s

Books published in the 1930s

Books published in the 1920s

History of list

Scientific disciplines often are not defined by their books but, rather, are reflected by them: A book is an author's or editor's sense of what is important in one subdiscipline, or an entire field, at one particular moment — within the constraints of whatever limitations have been placed on content, typically as by the publisher. Important limitations include such things as space, color plates, merit, etc. With the advent of the World Wide Web, many of these old limits no longer exist, though potentially at the cost of permanence. An author (or authors) today (as of September, 2006) can write anything they want, and reach a wide audience. But they will stay in "print" only so long as their web host stays in business and/or appropriate fees are paid. Wikipedia suggests a compromise, where, contrasting to one's own web page, content, in principle, may last "forever". Of course "forever" will be in a mutable form, but that also means that both error correction and updating are possible. Indeed, are encouraged!

Within this context, this article consists of a list of phage monographs (as loosely defined) dating back to 1921 (phage are viruses of bacteria). The list was created — because of the space limitations of traditional print — during the writing of the first chapter of the edited monograph, Bacteriophage Ecology (forcasted publication date: 2007, Cambridge University Press) and in order to be cited by that chapter. A forerunner of this list can be found in the January 1, 2005, issue (#23) of the Bacteriophage Ecology Group News, an online newsletter of the Bacteriophage Ecology Group. See phage ecology for more on that subdiscipline of phage biology and ecology.

Editing list

An approximation of ASM (American Society for Microbiology) conventions are used throughout. Titles (or English translations) have been presented in bold to allow for rapid scanning, and italics have been avoided both to improve readability and as consistent with ASM conventions. OCLC refers to a monograph's WorldCat accession number. ASIN is the Amazon Standard Identification Number (shown if ISBN is not known).

Bullets indicate uncertainty about the appropriateness of an entry for this list. If you feel that a monograph should be removed from this list then please indicate why in brackets at the end of the entry (in italics), e.g., [this entry should be removed from this list because... ]

Help with cyrillic lettering, transliterations, translations, missing information, uncited monographs, etc. is much appreciated. Please contact Dr. Stephen T. Abedon (through www.phage.org) with suggested changes or, of course, feel free to make changes (including updating) as appropriate.

List of phage monographs (descending date order)

Books published in the 2000s

Cairns, J., G. Stent, and J. D. Watson. 2007. Phage and the Origins of Molecular Biology (40th anniversary edition). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY. OCLC ???, ISBN 0-879-69800-4

Holmes, F. L., and W. C. Summers. 2006. Reconceiving the Gene: Seymour Benzer's Adventures in Phage Genetics. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. OCLC 62342731, ISBN 0-300-11078-2

Calendar, R., and S. T. Abedon. 2006. The Bacteriophages. 2nd edition. Oxford University Press, Oxford. OCLC 65192869, ISBN 0-195-14850-9

Häusler, T. 2006. Viruses vs. Superbugs: A Solution to the Antibiotic Crisis. Macmillan, OCLC 62804701, ISBN 1-403-98764-5

Birge, E. A. 2006. Bacterial and Bacteriophage Genetics. Springer-Verlag, New York. OCLC 17838673, ISBN 0-387-23919-7

Yartseva, A. 2006. Modeling of λ Phage Genetic Switch. Lulu Press. OCLC ???, ISBN 1-411-69545-3

Kutter, E., and A. Sulakvelidze. 2005. Bacteriophages: Biology and Application. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. OCLC 56880238, ISBN 0-849-31336-8

Sidhu, S. S. 2005. Phage Display In Biotechnology and Drug Discovery. CRC Press, OCLC 60311940, ISBN 0-824-75466-2

Waldor, M. K., D. Friedman, and S. Adhya. 2005. Phages: Their Role in Bacterial Pathogenesis and Biotechnology. ASM Press, Washington, DC. OCLC 57557385, ISBN 1-555-81307-0

Clackson, T., and H. B. Lowman. 2004. Phage Display: A Practical Approach. Oxford University Press, Oxford. OCLC 54904081, ISBN 0-19963-874-8

Ptashne, M. 2004. Genetic Switch: Phage Lambda Revisited. Cold Spring Harbor, New York, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. OCLC 54035585, ISBN 0-879-69716-4

Häusler, T. 2003. Gesund durch Viren — Ein Ausweg aus der Antibiotika-Krise. Piper, München, Germany. [German; Healthy through Viruses - A Way Out of the Antibiotic-Resistance Crisis] OCLC 53098607

O'Brien, P. M., and R. Aitken. 2002. Antibody Phage Display: Methods and Protocols. Humana Press, Totawa, NJ. OCLC 50175105, ISBN 0-896-03906-4

Burton, D. R., J. K. Scott, G. J. Silverman, and C. F. Barbas. 2001. Phage Display: A Laboratory Manual. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor,NY. OCLC 43903550, ISBN 0-879-69740-7

Birge, E. A. 2000. Bacterial and Bacteriophage Genetics. Springer-Verlag, New York. OCLC 41273243, ISBN 0-387-23919-7

Stahl, F. W. 2000. We can sleep later: Alfred D. Hershey and the Origins of Molecular Biology. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY. OCLC 43185885, ISBN 0-879-69567-6

The following have not yet been sufficiently scrutinized to ascertain that they technically are books (e.g., are not theses), are generally available, and are sufficiently about phage to be included in the above list:

Catalano, C. E. 2005. Viral Genome Packaging Machines: Genetics, Structure, and Mechanism. Eurekah.Com Inc , ??? OCLC 57731385, ISBN 0-306-48227-4

Jacob, F., N. Peyrieras, and M. Morange. 2002. Travaux Scientifiques de François Jacob. Odile Jacob, Paris. [French; Scientific work of François Jacob] OCLC 49567654

Rasool, S. A. 2002. Bacterial Viruses: Basic and Applied Concepts. University Grants Coommission, Islamabad. OCLC 62340547

Jia, P. X. 2001. Molecular Biology of Bacteriophage. Science Press, Beijing. OCLC ???

Kutter, E. 2001. Phage Therapy: Bacteriophage as Natural, Self-limiting Antibiotics. AstraZeneca Research Foundation India , India. OCLC ???, ISBN 8-190-12383-1

Books published in the 1990s

Summers, W. C. 1999. Felix d'Herelle and the Origins of Molecular Biology. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut. OCLC 47011823, ISBN 0-300-07127-2

Kay, B. K., J. Winter, and J. McCafferty. 1996. Phage Display of Peptides and Proteins: A Laboratory Manual. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. OCLC 34409484, ISBN 0-124-02380-0

Rothman-Denes, L., and R. Weisberg. 1995. Recent developments in bacteriophage virology. Academic Press, London. OCLC 34099713

Birge, E. A. 1994. Bacterial and Bacteriophage Genetics. Springer-Verlag, New York. OCLC 29791890, ISBN 3-540-94270-X

Jacob, F. 1995. The Statue Within: An Autobiography. Cold Spring Harbor Laboraotory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York. OCLC 17353378, ISBN 0-879-69476-9

Karam, J. D. 1994. Molecular Biology of Bacteriophage T4. ASM Press, Washington, DC. OCLC 30028892, ISBN 1-555-81064-0

Twort, A. 1993. In Focus, Out of Step: A Biography of Frederick William Twort F.R.S. 1877-1950. A. Sutton, Dover, NH. OCLC 28025779, ISBN 0-750-90327-9

Klaus, S., W. Krüger, and J. Meyer. 1992. Bakterienviren. Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart. [German; Bacterioviruses] OCLC 26765458

Ptashne, M. 1992. A Genetic Switch: Phage λ and Higher Organisms. Blackwell, Cambridge, MA. OCLC 25713934, ISBN 0-865-42209-5

Cairns, J., G. Stent, and J. D. Watson. 1992. Phage and the Origins of Molecular Biology (expanded edition). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY. OCLC 25872929

Anonymous. 1991. Practical Phage Control. International Dairy Federation. OCLC ???

Ho, N. B., Z. T. Si, and M. X. Yu. 1991. Bacteriophages from China, an electron microscopical atlas. Science Press, Beijing. OCLC ???

Books published in the 1980s

Birge, E. A. 1988. Bacterial and Bacteriophage Genetics: An Introduction. Springer-Verlag, New York. OCLC 17838673, ISBN 0-387-96696-X

Hobom, G., and R. Rott. 1988. The Molecular Biology of Bacterial Virus Systems. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. OCLC 18590320, ISBN 0-387-18513-5

Jacob, F. 1988. The Statue Within: An Autobiography. Basic Books, New York. OCLC 17353378, ISBN 0-465-08222-X

Fischer, E. P., and C. Lipson. 1988. Thinking About Science: Max Delbrück and the Origins of Molecular Biology. W.W. Norton & Co., New York. OCLC 16277429, ISBN 0-393-02508-X

Calendar, R. 1988. The Bacteriophages. Volume I Plenum Press, New York. OCLC 18686137

Calendar, R. 1988. The Bacteriophages. Volume II Plenum Press, New York. OCLC 17675040

Goyal, S. M., C. P. Gerba, and G. Bitton. 1987. Phage Ecology. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. OCLC 15654933, ISBN 0-471-82419-4

Symonds, N., A. Toussaint, P. van de Putte, and W. V. Howes. 1987. Phage Mu. Cold Spring Harbor Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. OCLC 16089280, ISBN 0-879-69306-1

Ackermann, H.-W., and M. S. DuBow. 1987. Viruses of Prokaryotes, Volume 1, General Properties of Bacteriophages. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. OCLC 15518646, ISBN 0-849-36056-0

Ackermann, H.-W., and M. S. DuBow. 1987. Viruses of Prokaryotes, Volume 2, Natural Groups of Bacteriophages. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. OCLC ???, ISBN 0-849-36056-0

Ptashne, M. 1986. A Genetic Switch: Gene Control and Phage λ. Blackwell, Cambridge, MA. OCLC 14719427, ISBN 0-865-42315-6

Mendzhul, M. I. 1985. Tsianofagi: Virusy Tsianobakterii. Nauk. dumka, Kiev. [Russian; Cyanophages] OCLC 16131273

Luria, S. E. 1984. A Slot Machine, a Broken Test Tube: An Autobiography. Harper & Row, Publishers, New York. OCLC 9758798, ISBN 0-060-91213-8 (1985 paperback ISBN 0-465-07831-1)

Lin, E. C. C., R. Goldstein, and M. Syvanen. 1984. Bacteria, Plasmids, and Phages: An Introduction to Molecular Biology. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA . OCLC 10182998, ISBN 0-674-58166-0

Mathews, C. K., E. M. Kutter, G. Mosig, and P. B. Berget. 1983. Bacteriophage T4. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC. OCLC 9622410, ISBN 0-914-82656-5

Hendrix, R. W., J. W. Roberts, F. W. Stahl, and R. A. Weisberg. 1983. Lambda II. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York. OCLC 9556019, ISBN 0-879-69150-6

Birge, E. A. 1981(or 1980?). Bacterial and Bacteriophage Genetics: An Introduction. Springer-Verlag, New York. OCLC 7248504, ASIN B000ICBYWI

DuBow, M. 1981. Bacteriophage Assembly: Proceedings of the Seventh Biennial Conference on Bacteriophage Assembly, Asilomar, California, September 14-17, 1980. A.R. Liss, New York. OCLC 7555738, ISBN 0-845-10064-5

Randall, L. L., and L. Philipson. 1980. Virus Receptors part 1 Bacterial Viruses. Chapman and Hall, London and New York. OCLC 8409813

Smith-Keary, P. F. 1988. Genetic Elements in Escherichia coli. MacMillan Education Ltd., London. OCLC ???, ISBN 0-333-44268-7

Sorber, C. A., and S. W. Funderburg. 1983. Bacteriophages as Indicators of Human Enteric Viruses in Activated Sludge Wastewater Treatment. Univ of Texas at Austin Center. OCLC ???, ISBN 9-993-06064-X

??? 1983. Cloning with Bacteriophage. ???, ??? OCLC ???

??? 1982. Bakteriofagi: Sbornik Nauchnykh Trudov. ???, ??? [language; title in English] OCLC 18836533

Desjardins, P. R., and G. B. Olson. 1983. Viral Control of Nuisance Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae). II. Cyanophage Strains, Stability on Phages and Hosts, and Effects of Environmental Factors on Phage-Host Interactions. California Water Resource Center, University of California, Davis, CA. OCLC ???

Books published in the 1970s

Stahl, F. W. 1979. Genetic Recombination: Thinking About it in Phage and Fungi. W.H. Freeman, San Francisco. OCLC 4956846, ISBN 0-716-71037-4

Pulverer, G., P. B. Heczko, and G. Peters. 1979. Phage-Typing of Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci: Proceedings of the 1st International Conference, Cologne, September 16-18, 1977. G. Fischer, Stuttgart. OCLC 5105577

Denhardt, D. T., D. Dressler, and D. S. Ray. 1978. The Single-Stranded DNA Phages. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY. OCLC 4491528, ISBN 0-879-69122-0

Fraenkel-Conrat, H., and R. R. Wagner. 1976. Comprehensive Virology: Reproduction of Bacterial DNA Viruses. Plenum Press, New York. OCLC 2331482, 0-306-35147-1

Primrose, S. B. 1976. Bacterial Transduction. Meadowfield Press Ltd., Durham, England. OCLC 3857517, ISBN 0-904-09523-1

Winkler, U., W. Rüger, and W. Wackernagel. 1976. Bacterial, Phage and Molecular Genetics. An Experimental Course. Springer, Berlin. OCLC 2121428, ISBN 0-387-07602-6

Fraenkel-Conrat, H., and R. R. Wagner. 1976. Comprehensive Virology: Regulation and Genetics of Bacterial DNA Viruses. Plenum Press, New York. OCLC 35284451, ISBN 0-306-35148-X

Douglas, J. 1975. Bacteriophages. p.77-133. Chapman and Hall, London. OCLC 1176725

Zinder, N. D. 1975. RNA Phages. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY. OCLC 1582488, ISBN 0-879-69109-3

King, R. C. 1974. Handbook of Genetics: Bacteria, Bacteriophages, and Fungi. Plenum Press, New York. OCLC ???, ISBN 0-306-37611-3

Krzywy, T., and T. Slopek. 1974. Morfologia i ultrastruktura bakteriofagów Shigella i Klebsiella. Polish Medical Publishers, Warsaw. [Polish; Morphology and Ultrastructure of Shigella and Klebsiella bacteriophages] OCLC 6943982

Champe, S. P. 1974. Phage. Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Stroudsburg, PA. OCLC 980240

Poglazov, B. F. 1973. Morphogenesis of T-Even Bacteriophages. Karger, New York. OCLC ???, ISBN 3-805-51645-2

Dalton, A. J., and F. Haguenau. 1973. Ultrastructure of Animal Viruses and Bacteriophages. An Atlas. Academic Press, New York. OCLC 762216, ASIN B0006C4EEA

Mathews, C. K. 1971. Bacteriophage Biochemistry. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York. OCLC 136326, ISBN 0-841-20288-5

Hershey, A. D. 1971. The Bacteriophage Lambda. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, OCLC 220264

Snustad, D. P., and D. S. Dean. 1971. Genetics Experiments with Bacterial Viruses. W. H. Freeman and Co., San Fransisco. OCLC 333991, ISBN 0-716-70161-8

Tomizawa, J.-I. 1971. Virulent Phage (Selected Papers in Biochemistry). University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo. OCLC 208390, ISBN 0-839-10612-2

Hayes, W. 1970. The Genetics of Bacteria and their Viruses: Studies in Basic Genetics and Molecular Biology. Wiley, New York. OCLC 4655740, ASIN B000H5C8WG

Tikhonenko, A. S. 1970. Ultrastructure of Bacterial Viruses. Plenum Press, New York. [Russian; Bacterial Virus Ultrastructure] OCLC 14492588, ISBN 0-306-30421-X

The following have not yet been sufficiently scrutinized to assertain that they technically are books (e.g., are not theses), are generally available, and are sufficiently about phage to be included in the above list:

??? 1979. Matematicheskie Modeli Molekuliarno-Geneticheskikh Sistem Upravleniia. ???, ??? [Russian; Mathematical Models of Molecular Genetic Regulatory Systems] OCLC 7733759

Desjardins, P. R., M. B. Barkley, S. A. Swiecki, and S. N. West. 1978. Viral Control of blue-green algae. California Water Resource Center, University of California, OCLC ???

??? 1978. Bakteriofagi i Ikh Ispol'zovanie v Veterinarnoi Praktike. ???, ??? [Russian; Bacteriophages and Their Utilization in Veterinary Practice] OCLC 4111249

??? 1977. Gene Expression V. 3 Plasmids and Phages. ???, ??? OCLC 13187199

??? 1974. Bactéries. Bactériophages. ???, ??? [French; Bacteria. Bacteriophages] OCLC ???

??? 1974. Lysotypie und Andere Spezielle Epidemiologische Laboratoriumsmethoden. ???, ??? [German & English; Lysotyping and Other Special Epidemiological Laboratory Methods] OCLC ???

??? 1972. Bakterien-, Phagen- und Molekulargenetik. ???, ??? [German; Bacteria-, Phage- and Molecular Genetics] OCLC 692617

??? 1972. Saikin Faji Iden Jikkenho. ???, ??? [Japanese; Experimental Methods in Bacteriophage Genetics] OCLC 14420642

Tomizawa, J. 1971. Bacterial Genetics and Temperate Phage (Selected Papers in Biochemistry). University Park Press, Baltimore, MD. OCLC 200390, ISBN 0-839-10611-4

Books published in the 1960s

Hayes, W. 1968. The Genetics of Bacteria and their Viruses. Wiley, New York. OCLC 5628

Tikhonenko, A. S. 1968. Ultrastruktura Virusov Bakterii. ???, ??? [Russian; Ultrastructure of Bacterial Viruses] OCLC 14492588

Raettig, H. 1967. Bakteriophagie 1957-1965 (Bacteriophagy 1957-1965). G. Fischer, Stuttgart. [German and English] OCLC 14503598

Cairns, J., G. Stent, and J. D. Watson. 1966. Phage and the Origins of Molecular Biology. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY. OCLC 712215

Stent, G. S. 1965. Molekuliarnaia Biologiia Virusov Bakterii. Izd.-vo "MIR",; Russia (Federation); Moscow, Moskva. [Russian; Molecular Biology of Bacterial Viruses] OCLC 55892813

Gani, J. 1965. Stochastic Models For Bacteriophage. Methuen & Co. Ltd., London. OCLC 279694

Hayes, W. 1964. The Genetics of Bacteria and their Viruses. Wiley, New York. OCLC 559954

Stent, G. S. 1963. Molecular Biology of Bacterial Viruses. WH Freeman and Co., San Francisco, CA. OCLC 268815

Geissler, E. 1962. Bakteriophagen, Objekte der Modernen Genetik. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin. [German; Bacteriophages, Objects of the Modern Genetics] OCLC 14607452

Pekhov, A. P. 1962. Elektronnomikroskopicheskoe issledovanie bakterii i fagov. ???, ??? [Russian; Electron Microscopic Study of Bacteria and Phage] OCLC 14607218

Stent, G. S. 1960. Papers on Bacterial Viruses. Little, Brown and Co., Boston. OCLC 485853

??? 1961. Bakteriofagi. ???, ??? [language; Bacteriophage] OCLC 18358144

Books published in the 1950s

Adams, M. H. 1959. Bacteriophages. Interscience, New York. OCLC 326505

Ho, N. B., Z. T. Si, and M. X. Yu. 1959. Bacteriophages from China. An Electron Microscopical Atlas. Science Press, Beijing. OCLC ???

Hercik, F. 1959. Biophysik der Bakteriophagen. VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin. [German; Biophysics of Bacteriophages] OCLC 15258981

Burnet, F. M., and W. M. Stanley. 1959. The Viruses: Biochemical, Biological and Biophysical Properties: Plant and Bacterial Viruses. Academic Press, New York. OCLC 326764

Raettig, H. 1958. Bakteriophagie, 1917 bis 1956; Zugleich en Vorschlag zur Dokumentation Wissenschaftlicher Literatur. G. Fischer, Stuttgart. [German; Bacteriophagy 1917 to 1956; At the Same Time a suggestion on the Documentation of Scientific Literature] OCLC 4309311

Terada, M. 1956. Studies on Bacterial Viruses. Naya Publishing Co., Tokyo. OCLC 1064505

Jacob, F. 1954. Les bactéries lysogènes et la notion de provirus. Masson, Paris. [French; The Lysogenic Bacteria and the Concept of the Provirus] OCLC 5780525

International Union of Biological Sciences. 1953. Le Bactériophage: Premier Colloque International. Institut Pasteur, Paris. [French; The Bacteriophage: First International Conference] OCLC 11662838

Evans, E. A. 1952. Biochemical Studies of Bacterial Viruses. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. OCLC 3195879

Hedén, C.-G. 1951. Studies of the infection of E. coli B with the bacteriophage T2. Acta. Path. Microbiol. Scand. supplement 8:1-126. OCLC 14670314

Lederberg, J. 1951. Papers in Microbial Genetics: Bacteria and Bacterial Viruses. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison. OCLC 2472829

??? 1958. Bakteriofagi i ikh primenenie v meditsinskoi praktike. ???, ??? [language; title in English] OCLC 14614699

??? 1950. Biologicheskie Antiseptiki: Bakteriofagi, Antitela, Antibiotik. ???, ??? [language; title in English] OCLC 14672517

Adams, M. H., J. H. jr. Comroe, and E. H. Venning. 1950. Methods of Study of Bacterial Viruses. Year Book Publishers, Chicago. OCLC 67599839

Books published in the 1940s

Hammarström, E. 1949. Phage-Typing of Shigella sonnei. Stockholm. OCLC 5140885

Lilleengen, K. 1948. Typing of Salmonella typhimurium by means of bacteriophage. The Bacteriological Hygenical Department of the Royal Veterinary College, Stockholm. OCLC 14665054

Steinmann, J. 1946. Le Bactériophage: Sa Nature et son Emploi Thérapeutique. K, Bâle. [French; The Bacteriophage: Its Nature and its Therapeutic Employment] OCLC 14735726

Flu, P. C. 1946. The Bacteriophage: A Historical and Critical Survey of 25 Years Research. Universitaire Pers Leiden, Leiden. OCLC 14744384

??? 1948. Ultravirusi, rikecie i bakteriofagi. ???, ??? [language; title in English] OCLC 14661068

??? 1945. Anaerobnye Bakteriofagi. ???, ??? [language; title in English] OCLC 14736765

Raiga, A. 1941. Traitement des Plaies de Guerre par le Bactériophage de d'Hérelle . Legrand & Bertrand, Paris. [French; Treatment of the wounds of war by the bacteriophage of Hérelle] OCLC 14725592

Books published in the 1930s

Northrop, J. H. 1939. Crystalline Enzymes. The Chemistry of Pepsin, Trypsin, and Bacteriophage. Columbia University Press, New York. OCLC 2387455

d'Hérelle, F. 1938. Le Phénomène de la Guérison dans les Maladies Infectieuses. Masson et cie, Paris. [French; The phenomenon of the Cure in the Infectious Diseases] OCLC 5784382

d'Hérelle, F. 1933. Le Bactériophage et ses Applications Thérapeutiques. Doin, Paris. [French; The Bacteriophage and its Therapeutic Applications] OCLC 14749145

Gardner, A. D. 1931. Microbes and Ultramicrobes: An Account of Bacteria, Viruses and the Bacteriophage. Methuen & Co. Ltd., London. OCLC 3180401

d'Hérelle, F., and G. H. Smith. 1930. The Bacteriophage and its Clinical Application. p.165-243. Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, Springfield, Illinois. OCLC 347451

Books published in the 1920s

d'Hérelle, F. 1929. Études sur le Choléra. Impr. A. Serafini, Alexandrie. [French; Studies on Asiatic Cholera] OCLC 15864352

Schuurman, C. J. 1927. Der Bakteriophage, eine Ultramikrobe; das D'Herellesche Phänomen. Rohrmoser, Bonn. [German; The Bacteriophage, an Ultramicrobe: the D'Hérelle phenomenon] OCLC 14743783

d'Hérelle, F. 1926. Le Bactériophage et son Comportement. Masson et Cie, Paris. [French; The Bacteriophage and its Behavior] OCLC 11981307

d'Hérelle, F., and G. H. Smith. 1926. The Bacteriophage and Its Behavior. The Williams &Wilkins Co., Baltimore. OCLC 2394374

Hauduroy, P. 1925. Le Bactériophage de d'Hérelle. Librairie Le François, Paris. [French; The Bacteriophage of d'Hérelle] OCLC 17294190

d'Hérelle, F. 1924. Drie Voordrachten over het Verschijnsel der Bacteriophagie. J.B. Wolters, Groningen. [Dutch; Three presentations concerning the phenomenon of the bacteriophage] OCLC 17864544

d'Hérelle, F., and G. H. Smith. 1924. Immunity in Natural Infectious Disease. Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore. OCLC 586303

d'Hérelle, F. 1922. Der Bakteriophage und seine Bedeutung für die Immunität; nach einem erweiterten und verbesserten. F. Vieweg & Sohn, Braunschweig. [German; The Bacteriophage and its Meaning for Immunity: toward an extended and improved text of the author's translation] OCLC 36920828

d'Hérelle, F. 1922. The Bacteriophage: Its Role in Immunity. Williams and Wilkins Co./Waverly Press, Baltimore. OCLC 14789160, ASIN B000H6G02O, B000H6EK2G

d'Hérelle, F. 1921. Le Bactériophage: Son Rôle dans l'Immunité. Masson et cie, Paris. [French; The Bacteriophage: Its Role in Immunity] OCLC 14794182

d'Hérelle, F., R. H. Malone, and M. N. Lahiri. 1930. Studies on Asiatic Cholera. Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta. OCLC 25936856

d'Hérelle, F. 1923. Les Défenses de l'Organisme. Flammarion, Paris. [French; The Defenses of the Organism] OCLC 11127665

Phage Experimental Evolution

Siobain Duffy, Yale University and

Stephen T. Abedon [3], The Ohio State University

Bacteriophage Ecology Group News (BEG News) 25

This was my first collaborative Wikipedia project. Feel free to add to the Wikipedia version, found at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phage_experimental_evolution

(equivalent to Wikipedia version as of Saturday, October 21, 2006)

Bacteriophage (phage) are the viruses of bacteria. Provided is an annotated bibliography of modern phage experimental evolution studies. Phage experimental evolution is part of the broader field of virus evolution.

1 Instructions and history

2 Experimental studies, by category

2.1 Laboratory phylogenetics

2.2 Epistasis

2.3 Experimental adaptation

2.3.1 …to usual hosts

2.3.2 …to new or modified hosts

2.3.3 …to modified conditions

2.3.4 …to high temperatures

2.3.5 …as compensation for deleterious mutations

2.3.6 …as toward change in phage virulence

2.4 Impact of sex/coinfection

2.4.1 Muller’s ratchet

2.4.2 Prisoner’s Dilemma

2.5 Coevolution

3 Historical considerations

4 Notes

Instructions and history

Editing instructions (of references) as well as tips for finding references online can be found here.

Reviews, purely theoretical studies, etc. are presented as footnotes within introductions to subtopics.

Tentatively added references should be presented using a bullet rather than a number.

This table is an expansion of a table presented by Breitbart et al. (2005)^[1] and was created during the writing of the chapters 1 and 6 of the edited monograph, Bacteriophage Ecology (forecasted publication date: 2007, Cambridge University Press), in order to be cited by chapter 1.

We invite further editing, additions, categories, discussion, introduction, updating, etc. For a primer on the early phage literature, see phage monographs.

Experimental studies, by category

Laboratory phylogenetics

Phylogenetics is the study of the evolutionary relatedness of organisms. Laboratory phylogenetics is the study of the evolutionary relatedness of laboratory-evolved organisms.

Hahn, M. W., M. D. Rausher, and C. W. Cunningham, 2002. Distinguishing between selection and population expansion in an experimental lineage of bacteriophage T7. Genetics 161:11-20. full text

Oakley, T. H., and C. W. Cunningham, 2000. Independent contrasts succeed where ancestor reconstruction fails in a known bacteriophage phylogeny. Evolution 54:397-405. abstract

Cunningham, C.W., K. Jeng, J. Husti, M. Badgett, I.J. Molineux, D.M. Hillis and J.J. Bull, 1997. Parallel molecular evolution of deletions and nonsense mutations in bacteriophage T7. Mol. Biol. Evol. 14:113-116. full text

Bull, J. J., C. W. Cunningham, I. J. Molineux, M. R. Badgett, and D. M. Hills, 1993. Experimental molecular evolution of bacteriophage T7. Evolution 47:993-1007. abstract

Hillis, D.M., J.J. Bull, M.E. White, M.R. Badgett and I.J. Molineux, 1992. Experimental phylogenetics: generation of a known phylogeny. Science. 255:589-592. abstract & pay article

Studier, F. W., 1980. The last of the T phages, p. 72-78. In N. H. Horowitz and E. Hutchings, Jr. (eds.), Genes, Cells, and Behavior: A View of Biology Fifty Years Later. W.H. Freeman & Co., San Fransisco. ISBN 0-716-71217-2

Studier, F. W., 1979. Relationships among different strains of T7 and among T7-related bacteriophages. Virology 95:70-84.

Epistasis

Epistasis is the dependence of the effect of one gene or mutation on the presence of another gene or mutation.

Burch, C.L., and L. Chao. 2004. Epistasis and its relationships to canalization in the RNA virus Φ6. Genetics. 167:559-567. full text

You, L., and J. Yin. 2002. Dependence of epistasis on environment and mutation severity as revealed by in silico mutagenesis of phage T7. Genetics. 160:1273-1281. full text

Schuppli, D., J. Georgijevic, and H. Weber. 2000. Synergism of mutations in bacteriophage Qβ RNA affecting host factor dependence of Qβ replicase. J. Mol. Biol. 295:149-154.

The phage literature provides many examples of epistasis which are not studied under the context of experimental evolution nor necessarily described as examples of epistasis.

Experimental adaptation

Experimental adaptation involves selection of organisms either for specific traits or under specific conditions...

Bull, J. J., J. Millstein, J. Orcutt and H.A. Wichman. 2006. Evolutionary feedback mediated through population density, illustrated with viruses in chemostats. Am. Nat. 167:E39-E51. abstract

Bull, J. J., M. R. Badgett, R. Springman, and I. J. Molineux. 2004. Genome properties and the limits of adaptation in bacteriophages. Evolution 58:692-701. abstract

Bull, J. J., M. R. Badgett, D. Rokyta, and I. J. Molineux. 2003. Experimental evolution yields hundreds of mutations in a functional viral genome. J. Mol. Evol. 57:241-248. abstract & pay article

Bull, J. J., M.R. Badgett, H.A. Wichman, J.P. Hulsenbeck, D.M. Hillis, A. Gulati, C. Ho and I.J. Molineux. 1997. Exceptional convergent evolution in a virus. Genetics. 147:1497-1507. full text

The reader should be aware that numerous phage experimental adaptations were performed in the early decades of phage study.

…to usual hosts

Wichman, H. A., J. Wichman, and J. J. Bull. 2005. Adaptive molecular evolution for 13,000 phage generations: A possible arms race. Genetics 170:19-31. full text

Rokyta, D., M. R. Badgett, I. J. Molineux, and J. J. Bull. 2002. Experimental genomic evolution: extensive compensation for loss of DNA ligase activity in a virus. Mol. Biol. Evol. 19:230-238. full text

Burch, C. L., and L. Chao. 2000. Evolvability of an RNA virus is determined by its mutational neighbourhood. Nature 406:625-628. abstract & pay article

Wichman, H. A., L. A. Scott, C. D. Yarber, and J. J. Bull. 2000. Experimental evolution recapitulates natural evolution. Philos. Trans. R. Lond. ,B 355:1677-1684. abstract

Wichman, H. A., M. R. Badgett, L. A. Scott, C. M. Boulianne, and J. J. Bull. 1999. Different trajectories of parallel evolution during viral adaptation. Science 285:422-424. abstract & pay article

…to new or modified hosts

Duffy, S., P. E. Turner, and C. L. Burch. 2006. Pleiotropic Costs of Niche Expansion in the RNA Bacteriophage Φ6. Genetics 172:751-757. full text

Pepin, K. M., M. A. Samuel, and H. A. Wichman. 2006. Variable Pleiotropic Effects From Mutations at the Same Locus Hamper Prediction of Fitness From a Fitness Component. Genetics 172:2047-2056. full text

Crill, W. D., H. A. Wichman, and J. J. Bull. 2000. Evolutionary reversals during viral adaptation to alternating hosts. Genetics 154:27-37. full text

Bull, J. J., A. Jacoboson, M. R. Badgett, and I. J. Molineux. 1998. Viral escape from antisense RNA. Mol. Microbiol. 28:835-846. full text

Hibma, A. M., S. A. Jassim, and M. W. Griffiths. 1997. Infection and removal of L-forms of Listeria monocytogenes with bred bacteriophage. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 34:197-207. abstract & pay article

Jassim, S. A. A., S. P. Denyer, and G. S. A. B. Stewart. 1995. Virus breeding. International Patent Application. WO 9523848. full text (under tab labeled "documents")

Schuppli, D., G. Miranda, H. C. T. Tsui, M. E. Winkler, J. M. Sogo, and H. Weber. 1997. Altered 3'-terminal RNA structure in phage Qβ adapted to host factor-less Escherichia coli. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:10239-10242. full text

Hashemolhosseini, S., Z. Holmes, B. Mutschler, and U. Henning. 1994. Alterations of receptor specificities of coliphages of the T2 family. J. Mol. Biol. 240:105-110. abstract & pay article

The older phage literature, e.g., pre-1950s, contains numerous examples of phage adaptations to different hosts. We invite interested individuals to track down and include these references in the above list.

…to modified conditions

Bacher, J. M., J. J. Bull, and A. D. Ellington. 2003. Evolution of phage with chemically ambiguous proteomes. BMC Evol. Biol. 3:24 full text

Bull, J. J., A. Jacoboson, M. R. Badgett, and I. J. Molineux. 1998. Viral escape from antisense RNA. Mol. Microbiol. 28:835-846. full text

Merril, C. R., B. Biswas, R. Carlton, N. C. Jensen, G. J. Creed, S. Zullo, and S. Adhya. 1996. Long-circulating bacteriophage as antibacterial agents. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:3188-3192. full text

Gupta, K., Y. Lee and J. Yin. 1995. Extremo-phage: in vitro selection of tolerance to a hostile environment. J. Mol. Evol. 41:113-114. abstract & pay article

The older phage literature, e.g., pre-1950s, also contains examples of phage adaptations to different culture conditions, such as phage T2 adaptation to low salt conditions. We invite interested individudals to track down and include these references in the above list.

…to high temperatures

Knies, J.L., R. Izem, K.L. Supler. J.G. Kingsolver, and C.L. Burch. 2006. The genetic basis of thermal reaction norm evolution in lab and natural phage population. PLoS Biology. 4:e201. full text

Poon, A., and L. Chao. 2005. The rate of compensatory mutation in the DNA bacteriophage ΦX174. Genetics. 170:989-999. full text

Poon, A., and L. Chao. 2004. Drift increases the advantage of sex in RNA bacteriophage Φ6. Genetics 166:19-24. full text

Holder, K. K., and J. J. Bull. 2001. Profiles of adaptation in two similar viruses. Genetics 159:1393-1404. full text

Bull, J. J., M. R. Badgett, and H. A. Wichman. 2000. Big-benefit mutations in a bacteriophage inhibited with heat. Mol. Biol. Evol. 17:942-950. full text

…as compensation for deleterious mutations

Poon, A., and L. Chao. 2005. The rate of compensatory mutation in the DNA bacteriophage ΦX174. Genetics. 170:989-999. full text

Heineman, R. H., I. J. Molineux, and J. J. Bull. 2005. Evolutionary robustness of an optimal phenotype: re-evolution of lysis in a bacteriophage deleted for its lysin gene. J. Mol. Evol. 61:181-191. abstract & pay article

Hayashi, Y., H. Sakata, Y. Makino, I. Urabe, and T. Yomo. 2003. Can an arbitrary sequence evolve towards acquiring a biological function? J. Mol. Evol. 56:162-168. abstract & pay article

Burch, C. L., and L. Chao. 1999. Evolution by small steps and rugged landscapes in the RNA virus Φ6. Genetics 151:921-927. full text

Klovins, J., N. A. Tsareva, M. H. de Smit, V. Berzins, and D. Van. 1997. Rapid evolution of translational control mechanisms in RNA genomes. J. Mol. Biol. 265:372-384. abstract & pay article

Olsthoorn, R. C., and J. van Duin. 1996. Evolutionary reconstruction of a hairpin deleted from the genome of an RNA virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:12256-12261. full text

Nelson, M. A., M. Ericson, L. Gold, and J. F. Pulitzer. 1982. The isolation and characterization of TabR bacteria: Hosts that restrict bacteriophage T4 rII mutants Mol. Gen. Genet. 188:60-68. abstract & pay article

Nelson, M.A. and L. Gold. 1982. The isolation and characterization of bacterial strains (Tab32) that restrict bacteriophage T4 gene 32 mutants Mol. Gen. Genet. 188:69-76.

There are many examples in the early phage literature of phage adapting and compensating for deleterious mutations, and we especially invite additions of such papers to this section.

…as toward change in phage virulence

Virulence is the negative impact that a pathogen (or parasite) has on the Darwinian fitness of a harboring organism (host). For phage, virulence results either in reduction of bacterial division rates or, more typically, in the death (via lysis) of individual bacteria. A number of theory papers exist on this subject, especially as it applies to the evolution of phage latent period: Abedon, 1989^[2], Wang et al., 1996^[3], Abedon et al., 2001^[4], Bull et al., 2004^[5], and Abedon, 2006^[6].

Kerr, B., C. Neuhauser, B. J. M. Bohannan, and A. M. Dean. 2006. Local migration promotes competitive restraint in a host–pathogen 'tragedy of the commons'. Nature 442:75-78. abstract & pay article

Wang, I.-N. 2006. Lysis timing and bacteriophage fitness. Genetics 172:17-26. full text

Abedon, S. T., P. Hyman, and C. Thomas. 2003. Experimental examination of bacteriophage latent-period evolution as a response to bacterial availability. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69:7499-7506. full text

Messenger, S. L., I. J. Molineux, and J. J. Bull. 1999. Virulence evolution in a virus obeys a trade-off. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 266:397-404. abstract

Bull, J. J., and I. J. Molineux. 1992. Molecular genetics of adaptation in an experimental model of cooperation. Evolution 46:882-895.

Bull, J. J., I. J. Molineux, and W. R. Rice. 1991. Selection for benevolence in a host-parasite system. Evolution 45:875-882.

The older phage literature contains numerous references to phage virulence, and phage virulence evolution. However, the reader should be warned that virulence is often used as a synonym for "not temperature", a usage which is neither employed here nor to be encouraged generally.

Impact of sex/coinfection

More than one phage can coinfect the same bacterial cell. When this happens, the phage can exchange genes, which is equivalent to "sex." Note that a number of the immediately following studies employ sex to overcome Muller's ratchet while papers that demonstrate Muller's ratchet (i.e., without employing sex to overcome the result) are instead presented under that heading.

Froissart, R., C. O. Wilke, R. Montville, S. K. Remold, L. Chao, and P. E. Turner. 2004. Co-infection weakens selection against epistatic mutations in RNA viruses. Genetics 168:9-19. full text

Montville, R., R. Froissart, S. K. Remold, O. Tenaillon, and P. E. Turner. 2005. Evolution of mutational robustness in an RNA virus. PLoS Biology 3:e381 full text

Sachs, J.L. and J. J. Bull. 2005. Experimental evolution of conflict mediation between genomes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 102:390-395. full text

Poon, A., and L. Chao. 2004. Drift increases the advantage of sex in RNA bacteriophage Φ6. Genetics 166:19-24. full text

Turner, P. E., and L. Chao. 1998. Sex and the evolution of intrahost competition in RNA virus Φ6. Genetics 150:523-532. full text

Chao, L., T. T. Tran, and T. T. Tran. 1997. The advantage of sex in the RNA virus Φ6. Genetics 147:953-959. full text

Malmberg, R. L. 1977. The evolution of epistasis and the advantage of recombination in populations of bacteriophage T4. Genetics 86:607-621. full text

Muller’s ratchet

Muller’s ratchet is the gradual, but irreversible accumulation of deleterious mutations in asexual organisms. Asexual organisms do not undergo gene exchange and therefore can't recreate mutation-free genomes. Chao, 1997^[7], provides a phage-emphasizing review of the subject.

de la Peña, M., S. F. Elena, and A. Moya. 2000. Effect of deleterious mutation-accumulation on the fitness of RNA bacteriophage MS2. Evolution 54:686-691. abstract
Chao, L. 1990. Fitness of RNA virus decreased by Muller's ratchet. Nature 348:454-455. abstract

Prisoner’s Dilemma

Prisoner's dilemma is a part of game theory which involves two individuals choosing to cooperate or defect, reaping differential rewards. During phage coinfection, it pertains to viruses which produce more protein products than they use (cooperators) and viruses which use more protein products than they produce (defectors). For theoretical treatment, see Brown, 2001^[8].

Turner, P. E., and L. Chao. 2003. Escape from Prisoner's Dilemma in RNA phage Φphi6. Am. Nat. 161:497-505. abstract
Turner, P. E., and L. Chao. 1999. Prisoner's dilemma in an RNA virus. Nature 398:441-443. abstract

Coevolution

Coevolution is the study of the evolutionary influence that two species have upon each other. Phage-bacterial coevolution is typically studied within the context of phage community ecololgy and reviews of phage coevolution are found at this link.

Buckling, A., Y. Wei, R. C. Massey, M. A. Brockhurst, and M. E. Hochberg. 2006. Antagonistic coevolution with parasites increases the cost of host deleterious mutations. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 273:45-49. abstract
Morgan, A. D., S. Gandon, and A. Buckling. 2005. The effect of migration on local adaptation in a coevolving host-parasite system. Nature 437:253-256. abstract & pay article
Forde, S. E., J. N. Thompson, and B. J. M. Bohannan. 2004. Adaptation varies through space and time in a coevolving host–parasitoid interaction. Nature 431:841-844. abstract
Mizoguchi, K., M. Morita, C. R. Fischer, M. Yoichi, Y. Tanji, and H. Unno. 2003. Coevolution of bacteriophage PP01 and Escherichia coli O157:H7 in continuous culture. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69:170-176. full text
Buckling, A., and P. B. Rainey. 2002. Antagonistic coevolution between a bacterium and a bacteriophage. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 269:931-936. full text
Buckling, A., and P. B. Rainey. 2002. The role of parasites in sympatric and allopatric host diversification. Nature 420:496-499. abstract & pay article
Lenski, R.E. and B.R. Levin. 1985. Constraints on the coevolution of bacteria and virulent phage – a model, some experiments and predictions for natural communities. Am. Nat. 125:585-602.
Chao, L., B.R. Levin, and F.M. Stewart. 1977. A complex community in a simple habitat: an experimental study with bacteria and phage. Ecology. 58:369-378. abstract

Historical considerations

The following is quoted from d'Hérelle and Smith, 1924^[9]:

ADAPTATION AND THE BACTERIOPHAGE

All authors admit that the virulence of the bacteriophage may increase for a given bacterium, or that it may diminish, according to the condition of the moment. This is then a phenomenon of adaptation analogous to that observed with all parasites.

The fact of attenuation and of exaltation of virulence is sufficient by itself to show that the badteriophage is an autonomous parasite. Certain authors (Seiffert) while admitting the fact, have tried to maintain that it is not the bateriophage which adapts itself, but rather the bacterium. An obvious reply would be that it is not the bacterium with which the passages are made, since each passage involves the action of the filtrate of a preceding lysed culture upon a fresh normal suspension of bacteria. By virtue of the fact that only the filtrate is concerned in the passages the adaptation must be something which is found in the filtrate.

But this is not all. It is certain that the bacterium, which is also a living being, must react, must likewise undergo adaptation. Constant experience shows that this is just what happens, but the adaptation which takes place, far from tending toward a destructive action, as would be the case if the bacterium adapted itself to the secretion of a lytic substance, reacts against the bacteriophage by a process of adaptation tending to hinder the action of the bacteriophage. The bacterium acquires a resistance. This resistance may, indeed, reach to a completely refractory condition, and, in such a case, it is the bacterium which destroys the bacteriophage (d'Herelle, Flu).

The bacteriophage adapts itself to a more and more vigorous attack against the bacterium, and the bacterium accustoms itself to resist this attack. Considering only experimental facts this is clearly evident when no pretense is made to interpret these facts to make them fit into a preconceived theoretical scheme.

But there are still other points. The bacteriophage adapts itself to harmful effects of the medium. I have shown that the bacteriophage can gradually adapt itself to the harmful action of glycerol and of acids. Asheshov has habituated a bacteriophage, originally unable to effect bacteriophagy in an acid medium, to act very strongly after a number of passages in a medium of increasing acidity. Wolff and Janzen have succeeded in adapting it to different antiseptics.

We have already seen that the bacteriophage functions as an antigen and that the serum of an animal which has received serial injections of a bacteriophage possesses the property of inhibiting bacteriophagous actions. Prausnitz has shown further that it is possible to adapt the bacteriophage to resist the inhibiting action of an antiserum. Once this adaptation is accomplished bacteriophagy takes place in any quantity of antiserium, although prior to the adaptation, an amount of a thousandth of a cubic centimeter or even less paralyzed bacteriophagy completely.

The proofs are then multiple: The bacteriophage possesses the power of adaptation. We have seen that it also possesses that of assimilation. It possesses likewise the two corollaries of these powers; the faculties of multiplication and variability as everyone admits. (pp. 267-268)

The bacteriophagous corpuscles are endowed with the powers of assimilation and adaptation, the faculties of multiplication and of variation. They are this necessarily living beings since they possess all of the characteristics of other living things.

A single bacteriophage is usually virulent, at the same time, for a certain number of bacterial species. This virulence is variable and is subject to increase or attenuation. Increase may always be secured in vitro by the method of passages at the expense of the bacterium for which it is desired to inrease the virulence.

The bacterium does not remain passive before the attack of the bacteriophage. It is capable of resistance. It is even able, when the conditions for it are favorable, to acquire a complete immunity. (pp. 269-270)

Notes

^ Breitbart, M., F. Rohwer, and S. T. Abedon. 2005. Phage ecology and bacterial pathogenesis, p. 66-91. In M. K. Waldor, D. I. Friedman, and S. L. Adhya (eds.), Phages: Their Role in Bacterial Pathogenesis and Biotechnology. ASM Press, Washington DC. ISBN 1-555-81307-0
^ Abedon, S. T. 1989. Selection for bacteriophage latent period length by bacterial density: A theoretical examination. Microb. Ecol. 18:79-88.
^ Wang, I.-N., D. E. Dykhuizen, and L. B. Slobodkin. 1996. The evolution of phage lysis timing. Evol. Ecol. 10:545-558. abstract & pay article
^ Abedon, S. T., T. D. Herschler, and D. Stopar. 2001. Bacteriophage latent-period evolution as a response to resource availability. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67:4233-4241. full text
^ Bull, J. J., D. W. Pfening, and I.-W. Wang. 2004. Genetic details, optimization, and phage life histories. Trends Ecol. Evol. 19:76-82. abstract & pay article
^ Abedon, S. T. 2006. Phage ecology, p. 37-46. In R. Calendar and S. T. Abedon (eds.), The Bacteriophages. Oxford University Press, Oxford. ISBN 0-195-14850-9
^ Chao, L. 1997. Evolution of sex and the molecular clock in RNA viruses. Gene 205:301-308. abstract
^ Brown, S. P. 2001. Collective action in an RNA virus. J. Evol. Biol. 14:821-828. full text
^ d'Hérelle, F., and G. H. Smith. 1924. Immunity in Natural Infectious Disease. Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore.

Cyanophage

Stephen T. Abedon [4], The Ohio State University

Bacteriophage Ecology Group News (BEG News) 25

Long-time readers will recognize this as having come from a BEG News article

Please help with the maintenance of the Wikipedia version, found at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanophage

(equivalent to Wikipedia version as of Saturday, October 21, 2006)

Cyanophage are viruses of cyanobacteria. Because of the important role of cyanobacteria as producers in the world's oceans, the study of the ecology of cyanophage, as cyanobacterium predators/antagonists, is important toward understanding global carbon cycling.

External links

Cyanophage publications

1989-1984 Publications (ascending-date order)

1965-1963 Publications (ascending-date order)

External links

Cyanophage publications

The following is an unannotated list of cyanophage publications. Effort has been made to provide a complete list of these publications, though likely not all older publications are present, and without question the latest cyanophage publications will be missing, at least temporarily. We invite further editing, additions, updating, etc.

Tentatively added references should be presented using a bullet rather than a number, and should be placed at the end of the lists otherwise spanning individual years. Theses or meeting abstracts should be entered using bullets rather than numbered.

Editing instructions (of references) as well as tips for finding references online can be found here. For a primer on the more-general phage literature, see phage monographs.

This list is an expansion of a list presented as the cyanophage literome in BEG News in 2004. BEG News is an online newsletter published by the Bacteriophage Ecology Group.

Publications (2000s)

2006

Clokie, M. R. J., J. Shan, S. Bailey, Y. Jia, H. M. Krisch, S. West, and N. H. Mann. 2006. Transcription of a 'photosynthetic' T4-type phage during infection of a marine cyanobacterium. Environ. Microbiol. 8:827-835. abstract & pay article
Hill, E. 2006. The cyanophage molecular mixing bowl of photosynthesis genes. PLoS Biology 4:e264 full text
Mann, N. H. 2006. Phages of cyanobacteria, p. 517-533. In R. Calendar and S. T. Abedon (eds.), The Bacteriophages. Oxford University Press, Oxford. ISBN 0-195-14850-9
Miller, R. V. 2006. Marine phages, p. 534-544. In R. Calendar and S. T. Abedon (eds.), The Bacteriophages. Oxford University Press, Oxford. ISBN 0-195-14850-9
Yoshida, T., Y. Takashima, Y. Tomaru, Y. Shirai, Y. Takao, S. Hiroishi, and K. Nagasaki. 2006. Isolation and characterization of a cyanophage infecting the toxic cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72:1239-1247. full text

2005

Hambly, E., and C. A. Suttle. 2005. The viriosphere, diversity, and genetic exchange within phage communities. Curr. Opin. Mirobiol. 8:444-450. abstract & pay article
Kao, C. C., S. Green, B. Stein, and S. S. Golden. 2005. Diel infection of a cyanobacterium by a contractile bacteriophage. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71:4276-4279. full text
Lindell, D., J. D. Jaffe, Z. I. Johnson, G. M. Church, and S. W. Chisholm. 2005. Photosynthesis genes in marine viruses yield proteins during host infection. Nature 438:86-89. abstract & pay article
Mann, N. H., M. R. J. Clokie, A. Millard, A. Cook, W. H. Wilson, P. J. Wheatley, A. Letarov, and H. M. Krisch. 2005. The genome of S-PM2, a "photosynthetic" T4-type bacteriophage that infects marine Synechococcus strains. J. Bacteriol. 187:3188-3200. full text
McDaniel, L., and J. H. Paul. 2005. Effect of nutrient addition and environmental factors on prophage induction in natural populations of marine Synechococcus species. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71:842-850. full text
Muhling, M., N. J. Fuller, A. Millard, P. J. Somerfield, D. Marie, W. H. Wilson, D. J. Scanian, A. F. Post, I. Joint, and N. H. Mann. 2005. Genetic diversity of marine Synechococcus and co-occurring cyanophage communities: evidence for viral control of phytoplankton. Environ. Microbiol. 7:499-508. abstract & pay article
Paul, J. H., and M. B. Sullivan. 2005. Marine phage genomics: what have we learned? Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 16:299-307. abstract & pay article
Sarma, T. A., and S. P. Kaur. 2005. Growth of cyanophage N-1 under the influence of heavy metal ions. Acta virologica. English ed 49:23-28. abstract
Short, C. M., and C. A. Suttle. 2005. Nearly identical bacteriophage structural gene sequences are widely distributed in both marine and freshwater environments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71:480-486. full text
Sullivan, M. B., M. Coleman, P. Weigele, F. Rohwer, and S. W. Chisholm. 2005. Three Prochlorococcus cyanophage genomes: Signature features and ecological interpretations. PLoS Biology 3:e144 full text
Tucker, S., and P. Pollard. 2005. Identification of cyanophage Ma-LBP and infection of the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa from an Australian subtropical lake by the virus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71:629-635. full text

2004

Bailey, S., M. R. J. Clokie, A. Millard, and N. H. Mann. 2004. Cyanophage infection and photoinhibition in marine cyanobacteria. Res. Microbiol. 155:720-725. abstract & pay article
Clokie, M. R., A. D. Millard, W. H. Wilson, and N. H. Mann. 2004. Encapsidation of host DNA by bacteriophages infecting marine Synechococcus strains. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 46:349-352. abstract & pay article
Dorigo, U., S. Jacquet, and J. F. Humbert. 2004. Cyanophage diversity, inferred from g20 gene analyses, in the largest natural lake in France, Lake Bourget. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70:1017-1022. full text
Hess, W. R. 2004. Genome analysis of marine photosynthetic microbes and their global role. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 15:191-198. abstract & pay article
Hewson, I., S. R. Govil, D. G. Capone, E. J. Carpenter, and J. A. Fuhrman. 2004. Evidence of Trichodesmium viral lysis and potential significance for biogeochemical cycling in the oligotrophic ocean. Aquat. Microb. Ecol. 36:1-8. abstract
Lindell, D., M. B. Sullivan, Z. I. Johnson, A. C. Tolonen , F. Rohwer, and S. W. Chisholm. 2004. Transfer of photosynthesis genes to and from Prochlorococcus viruses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101:11013-11018. full text
Millard, A., M. Clokie, D. A. Shub, and N. H. Mann. 2004. Genetic organization of the psbAD region in phages infecting marine Synechococcus strains. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101:11007-11012. full text
Wang, K., and F. Chen. 2004. Genetic diversity and population dynamics of cyanophage communities in the Chesapeake Bay. Aquat. Microb. Ecol. 34:105-116. abstract

2003

Frederickson, C. M., S. M. Short, and C. A. Suttle. 2003. The physical environment affects cyanophage communities in British Columbia inlets. Microb. Ecol. 46:348-357. abstract & pay article
Hewson, I., G. A. Vargo, and J. A. Fuhrman. 2003. Bacterial diversity in shallow oligotrophic marine benthos and overlying waters: Effects of virus infection, containment, and nutrient enrichment. Microb. Ecol. 46:322-336. abstract & pay article
Mann, N. H. 2003. Phages of the marine cyanobacterial picophytoplankton. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 27:17-34. abstract
Mann, N. H., A. Cook, A. Millard, S. Bailey, and M. Clokie. 2003. Bacterial photosynthesis genes in a virus. Nature 424:741. abstract & pay article
Marston, M. F., and J. L. Sallee. 2003. Genetic diversity and temporal variation in the cyanophage community infecting marine Synechococcus species in Rhode Island's coastal waters. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69:4639-4647. full text
Mendzhul, M. I., T. G. Lysenko, and S. A. Syrchin. 2003. [Development of cyanobacterial phages at the Institute of Microbiology and Virology of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (History and perspectives)]. Mikrobiol. Zh. 65:133-140.
Mendzhul, M. I., and S. I. Perepelytsia. 2003. [Comparative characteristics of native proteinases of the cyanobacteria Plectonema boryanum and Anabaena variabilis and those induced by cyanophages]. Mikrobiol Zh 65:21-28.
Sullivan, M. B., J. B. Waterbury, and S. W. Chisholm. 2003. Cyanophages infecting the oceanic cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus. Nature 424:1047-1051. full text

2002

Chen, F., and J. Lu. 2002. Genomic sequence and evolution of marine cyanophage P60: a new insight on lytic and lysogenic phages. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:2589-2594. full text
Fuhrman, J. A., J. Griffith, and M. Schwalbach. 2002. Prokaryotic and viral diversity patterns in marine plankton. Ecol. Res. 17:183-194. abstract & pay article
Gons, H. J., J. Ebert, H. L. Hoogveld, L. van den Hove , R. Pel, W. Takkenberg, and C. J. Woldringh. 2002. Observations on cyanobacterial population collapse in eutrophic lake water. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek J. Microbiol. 81:319-326. full text
Gorobets, O. B., L. P. Blinkova, and A. P. Baturo. 2002. [Action of Spirulina platensis on bacterial viruses]. Zh. Mikrobiol. Epidemiol. Immunobiol. 18-21.
Hall, M. J., S. D. Wharam, A. Weston, D. L. N. Cardy, and W. H. Wilson. 2002. Use of signal-mediated amplification of RNA technology (SMART) to detect marine cyanophage DNA. BioTechniques 32:604-611. abstract
McDaniel, L., L. A. Houchin, S. J. Williamson, and J. H. Paul. 2002. Plankton blooms: Lysogeny in marine Synechococcus. Nature 415:496
Ortmann, A. C., J. E. Lawrence, and C. A. Suttle. 2002. Lysogeny and lytic viral production during a bloom of the cyanobacterium Synechococcus spp. Microb. Ecol. 43:225-231. abstract & pay article
Paul, J. H., M. B. Sullivan, A. M. Segall, and F. Rohwer. 2002. Marine phage genomics. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 133:463-476.
Syrchin, S. A., and M. I. Mendzhul. 2002. [Some peculiarities of DNA structure of cyanophage LPP-3]. Mikrobiol. Zh. 64:35-43.
Syrchin, S. A., and M. I. Mendzhul. 2002. [Physical mapping of DNA of cyanophage LPP-3]. Mikrobiol. Zh. 64:24-30.
Zhong, Y., F. Chen, S. W. Wilhelm, L. Poorvin, and R. E. Hodson. 2002. Phylogenetic diversity of marine cyanophage isolates and natural virus communities as revealed by sequences of viral capsid assembly protein gene g20. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:1576-1584.

2001

Alonso, M. C., F. Jimenez-Gomez, J. Rodriguez, and J. J. Borrego. 2001. Distribution of virus-like particles in an oligotrophic marine environment (Alboran Sea, Western Mediterranean). Microb. Ecol. 42:407-415. abstract & pay article
Chami, M., G. Pehau-Arnaudet, O. Lambert, J. L. Ranck, D. Levy, and J. L. Rigaud. 2001. Use of octyl b-thioglucopyranoside in two-dimensional crystallization of membrane proteins. J Struct Biol 133:64-74. abstract & pay article
Hambly, E., F. Tétart, C. Desplats, W. H. Wilson, H. M. Krisch, and N. H. Mann. 2001. A conserved genetic module that encodes the major virion components in both the coliphage T4 and the marine cyanophage S-PM2. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98:11411-11416. full text
Lu, J., F. Chen, and R. E. Hodson. 2001. Distribution, isolation, host specificity, and diversity of cyanophages infecting marine Synechococcus spp. in river estuaries. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67:3285-3290. full text
Steward, G. F. 2001. Fingerprinting viral assemblages by pulsed field gel electrophoresis, p. 85-102. In J. H. Paul (ed.), Marine Microbiology. Academic Press, London. ISBN 0-125-21530-4

2000

Paul, J. H., and C. A. Kellogg. 2000. Ecology of bacteriophages in nature, p. 211-246. In C. J. Hurst (ed.), Viral Ecology. Academic Press, San Diego. ISBN 0-123-62675-7
Suttle, C. A. 2000. Cyanophages and their role in the ecology of cyanobacteria, p. 563-589. In B. A. Whitton and M. Potts (eds.), The Ecology of Cyanobacteria: Their Diversity in Time and Space. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston. ISBN 0-792-34735-8
Suttle, C. A. 2000. The ecology, evolutionary and geochemical consequences of viral infection of cyanobacteria and eukaryotic algae, p. 248-286. In C. J. Hurst (ed.), Viral Ecology. Academic Press, New York. ISBN 0-123-62675-7
Wilson, W. H., N. J. Fuller, I. R. Jount, and N. H. Mann. 2000. Analysis of cyanophage diversity in the marine environment using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis, p. 565-570. In C. R. Bell, M. Brylinsky, and P. Johnson-Green (eds.), Microbial Biosystems: New Frontiers. Atlantic Canada Society for Microbial Ecology, Halifax, Canada.
Wilson, W. H., D. Lane, D. Pearce, and J. C. Ellis-Evans. 2000. Transmission electron microscope analysis of viruses in the freshwater lakes of Signy Island, Antarctica. Polar Biology 23:657-660. abstract & pay article

Publications (1990s)

1999

Manage, P., Z. Kawabata, and S. Nakano. 1999. Seasonal changes in densities of cyanophage infectious to Microcystis aeruginosa in a hypereutrophic pond. Hydrobiologia. 411:211-216. abstract & pay article
Martin, E. L., and T. A. Kokjohn. 1999. Cyanophages, p. 324-332. In A. Granoff and R. G. Webster (eds.), Encyclopedia of Virology, 2^nd edition. Academic Press, San Diego. ISBN 0-122-27030-4
Rosowski, J. R., J. J. Shaffer, and E. L. Martin. 1999. First report of a putative cyanophage, MC-1 of Microcoleus sp. Microsc. Microanalysis 5:1142-1143.
van Etten, J. L. 1999. Phycodnaviridae, p. 183-193. In Virus Taxonomy - Seventh Report.
van Hannen, E. J., G. Zwart, M. P. van Agterveld, H. J. Gons, J. Ebert, and H. J. Laanbroek. 1999. Changes in bacterial and eukaryotic community structure after mass lysis of filamentous cyanobacteria associated with viruses. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65:795-801. full text
Weinbauer, M. G., S. W. Wilhelm, C. A. Suttle, R. J. Pledger, and D. L. Mitchell. 1999. Sunlight-induced DNA damage and resistance in natural viral communities. Aquat. Microb. Ecol. 17:111-120. abstract
Wilson, W. H., N. J. Fuller, I. R. Joint, and N. H. Mann. 1999. Analysis of cyanophage diversity and population structure in a south-north transect of the Atlantic ocean. Bull. Inst. Océanogr. Manaco 0:209-216. abstract
Zhao, Y., Z. Shi, G. Huang, and X. Wang. 1999. Blue-green algal viruses (cyanophages). Virologica Sinica 14:100-105.

1998

Agustí, S., M. P. Satta, M. P. Mura, and E. Benavent. 1998. Dissolved esterase activity as a tracer of physoplankton lysis: Evidence of high phytoplankton lysis rates in the northwestern Mediterranean. Limnol. Oceanogr. 43:1836-1849. abstract
Fuller, N. J., W. H. Wilson, I. R. Joint, and N. H. Mann. 1998. Occurrence of a sequence in marine cyanophages similar to that of T4 gp20 and its application to PCR-based detection and quantification techniques. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64:2051-2060. full text
Garza, D. R., and C. A. Suttle. 1998. The effect of cyanophages on the morality of Synechococcus spp. and selection for UV resistant viral communities. Microb. Ecol. 36:281-292.
Mendzhul, M. I., T. G. Lysenko, N. V. Koltukova, S. A. Syrchin, and S. N. Sukhanov. 1998. Principles of virus-directed regulation of formation of the dynamic system virus-cell (problems, methodology and prospects of cyanophagia). Mikrobiol. Zh. 60:66-78.
Mendzhul, M. I., T. G. Lysenko, and N. V. Koltukova. 1998. [Key enzymes of biosynthesis of amino acids of the glutamic series in the virus-cell system Anabaena variabilis + A-1]. Ukr Biokhim Zh 70:16-22.
Wilhelm, S. W., M. G. Weinbauer, C. A. Suttle, and W. H. Jeffrey. 1998. The role of sunlight in the removal and repair of viruses in the sea. Limnol. Oceanogr. 43:586-592. abstract via JSTOR
Wilson, W. H., S. Turner, and N. H. Mann. 1998. Population dynamics of phytoplankton and viruses in a phosphate-limited mesocosm and their effect on DMSP and DMS production. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 46:49-59. abstract & pay article

1997

Mole, R., D. Meredith, and D. G. Adams. 1997. Growth and phage resistance of Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120 in the presence of cyanophage AN-15. Journal of Applied Phycology [J. Appl. Phycol. ] 9:339-345. abstract & pay article
Sarma, T. A., and B. Kaur. 1997. Characterization of host-range mutants of cyanophage N-1. Acta Virol. 41:245-250. abstract
Sime-Ngando, T. 1997. Viruses in aquatic ecosystems. A review. L'Année Biologique 36:181-210.
Sode, K., R. Oonari, and M. Oozeki. 1997. Induction of a temperate marine cyanophage by heavy metal. J. Mar. Biotechnol. 5:178-180. abstract & pay article
Xu, X., I. Khudyakov, and C. P. Wolk. 1997. Lipopolysaccharide dependence of cyanophage sensitivity and aerobic nitrogen fixation in Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120. J. Bacteriol. 179:2884-289. full text

1996

Corpe, W. A., and T. E. Jensen. 1996. The diversity of bacteria, eukaryotic cells and viruses in an oligotrophic lake. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 46:622-630. abstract & pay article
Gol'din, E. B., and M. I. Mendzhul. 1996. [Phagolysates of cyanobacteria: their biocidal properties and use]. Mikrobiol. Zh. 58:51-58.
Khudyakov, I., and C. P. Wolk. 1996. Evidence that the hanA gene coding for HU protein is essential for heterocyst differentiation in, and cyanophage A-4(L) sensitivity of, Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120. J. Bacteriol. 178:3572-3577. full text
Lopez-Pila, J. M., H. Dizer, and W. Dorau. 1996. Wastewater treatment and elimination of pathogens: new prospects for an old problem. Microbiologia 12:525-536. abstract
Ohki, K., and Y. Fujita. 1996. Occurrence of a temperate cyanophage lysogenizing the marine cyanophyte Phormidium persicinum. J. Phycol. 32:365-370. abstract & pay article
Sagi, J., E. Szakonyi, M. Vorlickova, and J. Kypr. 1996. Unusual contribution of 2-aminoadenine to the thermostability of DNA. J Biomol Struct Dyn 13:1035-1041. abstract
Suttle, C. A., A. M. Chan, K. M. Rodda, S. M. Short, M. G. Weinbauer, D. R. Garza, and S. W. Wilhelm. 1996. The effect of cyanophages on Synechococcus spp. during a bloom in the western Gulf of Mexico. EOS 76 (suppl.):OS207-OS208
Wilson, W. H., N. G. Carr, and N. H. Mann. 1996. The effect of phosphate status on the kinetics of cyanophage infection in the oceanic cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. WH7803. J. Phycol. 32:506-516. abstract

Rodda, K. M. 1996. Temporal and spatial dynamics of Synechococcus spp. and Micromonas pusilla host-viral systems. University of Texa at Austin. M.S. thesis.

1995

Goto, Y., and M. Kitayama. 1995. A study on cyanophages inhibiting the growth of algae producing musty odor. Water Supply 13:263-266.
Hennes, K. P., and C. A. Suttle. 1995. Direct counts of viruses in natural waters and laboratory cultures by epifluorescence microscopy. Limnol. Oceanogr. 40:1050-1055. abstract JSTOR
Hennes, K. P., C. A. Suttle, and A. M. Chan. 1995. Fluorescently labeled virus probes show that natural virus populations can control the structure of marine microbial communities. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:3623-3627. full text
Maranger, R., and D. F. Bird. 1995. Viral abundance in aquatic systems: a comparison between marine and fresh waters. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 121:1-3.
Mendzhul, M. I., N. V. Koltukova, T. G. Lysenko, O. A. Shainskaia, and S. I. Perepelitsa. 1995. [Effect of reproduction of the LPP-3 cyanophage on glutamate dehydrogenase and glutamine synthetase activity in the cyanobacterium Plectonema boryanum]. Ukr Biokhim Zh 67:33-37.
Perepelitsa, S. I., N. V. Koltukova, and M. I. Mendzhul. 1995. [Alanine dehydrogenase of the cyanobacterium Plectonema boryanum in the early period of cyanophage LPP-3 development]. Ukr Biokhim Zh 67:47-52.
Sarma, T. A., and R. Singh. 1995. Characterization of TS-mutants of cyanophage N-1 by their inactivation by physical and chemical agents. Acta Virol. 39:65-68. abstract

1994

Kim, M., and Y.-K. Choi. 1994. A New Synechococcus Cyanophage from a Reservoir in Korea. Virology 204:338-342. abstract & pay article
Koltukova, N. V., G. K. Kadyrova, T. G. Lysenko, and M. I. Mendzhul. 1994. [Aspartate kinase complex of Anabaena variabilis during the early period of development of cyanophage A-1]. Ukr Biokhim Zh 66:41-48.
Sarma, T. A., and R. Singh. 1994. Isolation and characterization of temperature-sensitive mutants of cyanophage N-1. Acta Virol 38:11-16. abstract
Singh, S., A. Bhatnagar, and A. K. Kashyap. 1994. Energetics of cyanophage N-1 multiplication in the diazotrophic cyanobacterium Nostoc muscorum. Microbios 78:259-265. abstract
Sode, K., M. Oozeki, K. Asakawa, J. G. Burgess, and T. Matsunaga. 1994. Isolation of a marine cyanophage infecting the marine unicellular cyanobacterium, Synechococcus sp. NKBG 042902. J. Mar. Biotechnol. 1:189-192.
Suttle, C. A., and A. M. Chan. 1994. Dynamics and distribution of cyanophages and their effect on marine Synechococcus spp. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60:3167-3174. full text

1993

Mendzhul, M. I., S. A. Syrchin, B. A. Rebentish, A. A. Averkiev, and I. V. Busakhina. 1993. [The resistance of the DNA of cyanophage LPP-3 to the action of different restriction endonucleases]. Mikrobiol. Zh. 55:47-53.
Sarma, T. A., and B. Kaur. 1993. Spontaneous and induced host range mutants of cyanophage N-1. Arch Virol 130:195-200. abstract pay article
Suttle, C. A., and A. M. Chan. 1993. Marine cyanophages infecting oceanic and coastal strains of Synechococcus: Abundance, morphology, cross-infectivity and growth characteristics. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 92:99-109.
Suttle, C. A., A. M. Chan, F. Chen, and D. R. Garza. 1993. Cyanophages and sunlight: A paradox, p. 303-307. In R. Guerrero and C. Pedros-Alio (eds.), Trends in Microbial Ecology. Spanish Society Microbiology, Barcelona.
Waterbury, J. B., and F. W. Valois. 1993. Resistance to co-occurring phages enables marine Synechococcus communities to coexist with cyanophages abundant in seawater. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59:3393-3399. full text
Wilson, W. H., I. R. Joint, N. G. Carr, and N. H. Mann. 1993. Isolation and molecular characterization of five marine cyanophages propagated on Synechococcus sp. strain WH7803. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59:3736-3743. full text

1992

Mendzhul, M. I., N. V. Koltukova, T. G. Lysenko, and O. A. Shainskaya. 1992. Effect of reproduction of cyanophages A-1, S-8K and LPP-3 on proteolysis processes in the cells of cyanobacteria. Mikrobiol. Zh. 54:90-95.

Jido, E. P. 1992. The inhibitory effects of the extracts of Zingiber plants on the adsorption, growth, and replication of phage LPP-1 in cyanobacterium. Loyola University of Chicago. M.S. thesis.

1991

Monegue, R. L., and E. J. Phlips. 1991. The effect of cyanophages on the growth and survival of Lyugbya wollei, Anabaenaflos aquae, and Anabaena circinalis. J. Aquat. Plant. Manage. 29:88-93.
Proctor, L. M., and J. A. Fuhrman. 1991. Roles of viral infection in organic particle flux. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 69:133-142. abstract
Schmidt, T. M., E. F. Delonge , and N. R. Pace. 1991. Analysis of marine picoplankton community by 16S ribosomal-RNA gene cloning and sequencing. J. Bacteriol. 173:4371-4378. full text
Schneider, G. J., J. D. Lang, and R. Haselkorn. 1991. Promoter recognition by the RNA polymerase from vegetative cells of the cyanobacterium Anabaena 7120. Gene 105:51-60. abstract & pay article
Suttle, C. A., A. M. Chan, and M. T. Cottrell. 1991. Use of ultrafiltration to isolate viruses from seawater which are pathogens to marine phytoplankton. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57:721-726. full text
Vorlickova, M., I. Hejtmankova, and J. Kypr. 1991. Circular dichroism studies of salt- and alcohol- induced conformational changes in cyanophage S-2L DNA which contains amino 2 adenine instead of adenine. J Biomol Struct Dyn 9:81-85. abstract

1990

Muradov, M., G. V. Cherkasov, D. U. Akhmedova, and A. G. Khalmuradov. 1990. A new temperate cyanophage NP-1T lysogenizing cyanobacterial cultures belonging to the genera Nostoc and Plectonema. Mikrobiologiia 59:1038-1045.
Muradov, M. M., G. V. Cherkasova, D. U. Akhmedova, F. D. Kamilova, R. S. Mukhamedov, A. A. Abdukarimov, and A. G. Khalmuradov. 1990. Comparative study of NP-IT cyanophages, which lysogenize nitrogen-fixing bacteria of the genera Nostoc and Pleconema (Russian?). Mikrobiologiia 59:819-826.
Muradov, M. M., G. V. Cherkasova, D. U. Akhmedova, F. D. Kamilova, R. S. Mukhamedov, A. A. Abdukarimov, and A. G. Khalmuradov. 1990. Comparative study of NP-IT cyanophages, which lysogenize nitrogen-fixing bacteria of the genera Nostoc and Pleconema (English). Microbiology (translation of Mikrobiologiya) 59:558-563.
Phlips, E. J., R. L. Monegue, and F. J. Aldridge. 1990. Cyanophages which impact bloom-forming cyanobacteria. J. Aquat. Plant. Manage. 28:92-97. abstract
Proctor, L. M., and J. A. Fuhrman. 1990. Viral mortality of marine bacteria and cyanobacteria. Nature 343:60-62. abstract & pay article
Suttle, C. A., A. M. Chan, and M. T. Cottrell. 1990. Infection of phytoplankton by viruses and reduction of primary productivity. Nature 347:467-469. abstract & pay article
Teklemariam, T. A., S. Demeter, Z. Deak, G. Suranyi, and G. Borbely. 1990. AS-1 cyanophage infection inhibits the photosynthetic electron flow of photosytem II in Synechococcus sp. PCC 6301, a cyanobacterium. FEBS Lett. 270:211-215. full text

Publications (1980s)

1989-1984 Publications (ascending-date order)

Bancroft, I., and R. J. Smith. 1989. Sequence counter-selection in cyanophage, p. 316L. J. Rogers and J. R. Gallon (eds.), Biochemistry of the Algae and Cyanobacteria.
Bancroft, I., and R. J. Smith. 1988. An analysis of restriction endonuclease sites in cyanophages infecting the heterocystous cyanobacteria Anabaena and Nostoc. J. Gen. Virol. 69 ( Pt 3):739-743.
Martin, E. L., and R. Benson. 1988. Phages of cyanobacteria, p. 607-645. In R. Calendar (ed.), The Bacteriophages. Volume 2. Plenum Press, New York.
Cannon, R. E. 1987. Cyanophage ecology, p. 245-265. In S. M. Goyal, C. P. Gerba, and G. Bitton (eds.), Phage Ecology. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Franche, C. 1987. Isolation and characterization of a temperate cyanophage for a tropical Anabaena strain. Archives of Microbiology 148:172-177.
Goryushin, V. A., and O. A. Shainskaya. 1987. Resistance of cultures of cyanobacteria Synechococcus cedrorum and Synechococcus parvula to AS-1K and S-8K cyanophages. Mikrobiol. Zh. 48:74-78.
Johnson, D. W., and D. Borovsky. 1987. Changes in sensitivity to cyanophage infection in axenic LPP cyanobacteria. Microbios Letters 35:105-112.
Bisen, P. S., S. Audholia, A. K. Bhatnagar, and S. N. Bagchi. 1986. Evidence for lysogeny and viral resistance in the cyanobacterium Phormidium uncinatum. Curr. Microbiol. 13:1-5.
Mendzhul, M. I., and A. A. Averkiev. 1986. [The structure of cyanobacterial phycobilisomes and its change in viral infection]. Mikrobiol Zh 48:89-101.
Mil'ko, E. S., and N. S. Egorov. 1986. [Role of temperate phage in bacterial dissociation]. Nauchnye doklady vysshei shkoly Biologicheskie nauki 6-19.
Bisen, P. S., S. Audholia, and A. K. Bhatnagar. 1985. Mutation to resistance for virus AS-1 in the cyanobacterium Anacystis nidulans. Microbiol. Lett. 29:7-13.
Johnson, D. W., and M. Potts. 1985. Host range of LPP cyanophages. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 35:76-78.
Mendzhul, M. I. 1985. Tsianofagi: Virusy Tsianobakterii. Nauk. dumka, Kiev.
van Etten, J. L., C. H. van Etten, J. K. Johnson, and D. E. Burbank. 1985. A survey for viruses from fresh water that infect a eukaryotic Chlorella-like green alga. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 49:1326-1328.
Barnet, Y. M., M. J. Daft, and W. D. P. Stewart. 1984. The effect of suspended particular material on cyanobacteria-cyanophage interactions in liquid culture. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 56:109-115.
Kraus, M. P. 1984. Effect of toxicants on UV survival of cyanophage host virus sytems. Photochem. Photobiol. 39:97S
Mallison, S. M. I., and R. E. Cannon. 1984. Effects of pesticides on cyanobacterium Plectorema boryanum and cyanophage LPP-1. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 47:910-914.

1983

Amla, D. V., and P. N. Saxena. 1983. Metabolic aspects of cyanophage AS-1 replication and reproduction in cyanobacterium Anacystis nidulans. Biochem. Physiol. Pflanz. 178:225-236.
Cannon, R. E. 1983. Aerosol release of cyanophages and coliforms from activated sludge basins. Journal Water Pollution Control Federation 55:1070-1074.
Desjardins, P. R. 1983. Cyanophage: Histroy and likelihood as a control, p. 242-248. In AnonymousLake Restoration, Protection, and Management. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Desjardins, P. R., and G. B. Olson. 1983. Viral Control of Nuisance Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae). II. Cyanophage Strains, Stability on Phages and Hosts, and Effects of Environmental Factors on Phage-Host Interactions. California Water Resource Center, University of California, Davis, CA.
Gromov, B. V. 1983. Cyanophages. Ann. Microbiol. (Inst. Pasteur) 134B:43-59.
Safferman, R. S., R. E. Cannon, P. R. Desjardins, B. V. Gromov, R. Haselkorn, L. A. Sherman, and M. Shilo. 1983. Classification and nomenclature of viruses of cyanobacteria. Intervirology 19:61-66.

1982

Coulombe, A. M., and G. G. C. Robinson. 1982. Collapsing Aphanizomenon flos aquae blooms: Possible contributions of photo-oxidation, oxygen toxicity and cyanophages. Canadian Journal of Botany 59:1277-1284.
Kashyap, A. K., and S. L. Gupta. 1982. PLEIOTROPIC BEHAVIOR OF A CYANO PHAGE AS-1 RESISTANT MUTANT OF ANACYSTIS-NIDULANS. Mol. Gen. Genet. 185:365-366.
Koz'yakov, S. Y. 1982. Peculiarities of a new cyanophage specific for the cyanobacterium Synechococcus schmidlea. Microbiology (New York) 50:395-401.
Oliveira, A. R., J. B. Mudd, and P. R. Desjardins. 1982. AS1 cyanophage adsorption to liposomes. J. Gen. Virol. 61:153-156.
Olson, G. B., and P. R. Desjardins. 1982. The effet of light and temperature on the generation time, adsorption, and yield of the cyanophages AS-1. Phytopathology 72:937

1981

Amla, D. V. 1981. Chelating agent shock of cyanophage AS-1 infecting unicellular blue-green algae, Anacystis nidulans. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 19:209-211.
Amla, D. V. 1981. Isolation of characteristics of minute plaque forming mutant of cyanophage AS-1. Biochem. Physiol. Pflanz. 176:83-89.
Barnet, Y. M., M. J. Draft, and W. D. P. Stewart. 1981. Cyanobacteria-cyanophage interactions in continuous culture. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 51:541-552.
Barnet, Y. M., M. J. Daft, and W. D. P. Stewart. 1981. Cyanobacteriophage interactions on the replication of cyanophage SM-2. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 51:541-552.
Benson, R., and E. Martin. 1981. Effects of photosynthetic inhibitors and light-dark regimes on the replication of cyanophage SM-2. Archives of Microbiology 129:165-167.
Desjardins, P. R. Cyanophages--are they potential biological control agents of nuisance blue-green algae? E-81-7, 198-229. 1981. Pacific Grove, California. Proc.Workshop Algal Manage.Control. 1980.
Hu, N.-T., T. Thiel, T. H. Gidding, Jr., and C. P. Wold. 1981. New Anabaena and Nostoc cyanophages from sewage settling ponds. Virology 114:236-246.
Moisa, I., E. Sotropa, and V. Velehorschi. 1981. Sequence of morphological alterations in blue-green algae in the course of cyanophage infection. Virologie 32:133-137.
Moisa, I., E. Sotropa, and V. Velehorschi. 1981. Investigation on the presence of cyanophages in fresh and sea waters of Romania. Virologie 32:127-132.

1980

Borbéy, G., C. Kari, A. Gulyas, and G. L. Farkas. 1980. Bacteriophage infection intereres with quanosine 3'-diphosphate-5'-disphosphate accumulation induced by energy and nitrogen starvation in cyanobacterium Anacystis nidulans. J. Bacteriol. 144:859-864.
Kraus, M. P. 1980. Host range plaque morphology studies of cyanophage LPP-1. J. Phycol. 16:186-191.

Publications (1970s)

1979

Amla, D. V. 1979. Photoreactivation of ultraviolet irradiated blue-green alga: Anacystis nidulans and cyanophage AS-1. Arch Virol 59:173-179.
Balogh, A., G. Borbely, C. Cseke, J. Udvardy, and G. L. Farkas. 1979. Virus infection affects the molecular properties and activity of glucose-6-P dehydrogenase in Anacystis nidulans, a Cyanobacterium. Novel aspect of metabolic control in a phage-infected cell. FEBS Lett. 105:158-162.
Cseke, C. S., and G. L. Farkas. 1979. Effect of light on the attachment of cyanophage AS-1 to Anacystis nidulans. J. Bacteriol. 137:667-669.
Currier, T. C., and C. P. Wolk. 1979. Characteristics of Anabaena variabilis influencing plaque formation by cyanophage N-1. J. Bacteriol. 139:88-92.
Fallon, R. D., and T. D. Brock. 1979. Lytic organisms and photooxidative effects: Influence of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) in Lake Mendota , Wisconsin. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 38:499-505.
Mendzhul, M. I. 1979. Optimization kinetics and thermodynamics of cyanophage A-1 adsorption on algal cells. Mikrobiol. Zh. 41:145-150.
Menzel, G., and E. Stenz. 1979. [Effect of the detergent Metaupon on replication of various phages]. Z Allg Mikrobiol 19:325-332.
Myslovich, V. O. 1979. Lysate effect of Microcystis aeruginosa infected with cyanophage AM-1 on survival of Daphnia magna. Gidrobiologicheskii Zhurnal 15:67-70.
Rambler, M., and L. Margulis. 1979. An ultraviolet light induced bacteriophage in Beneckea gazogenes. Origins of Life 9:235-240.
Safferman, R. S. and Rohr, M. E. The Practical Directory to the Phycovirus Literature. EPA-600/9-79-013. 1979. Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S. Environmental Protection.

1978

Blashka, K. H. 1978. Phage-algal interactions in the cyanophage AS-1/blue-green alga Anacystis nidulans infective system. City University of New York.
Bobrovnik, S. A., M. I. Mendzhul, and T. G. Lysenko. 1978. Kinetics mechanism and thermodynamics of cyanophage A-1 adsorption on the cells of algae-host. Biofizika 23:489-493.
Desjardins, P. R., M. B. Barkley, S. A. Swiecki, and S. N. West. 1978. Viral Control of blue-green algae. California Water Resource Center, University of California,
Khudyakov, I. Y., M. D. Kirnos, N. I. Alexandrushkina, and B. F. Vanyushin. 1978. Cyanophages S-2L contains DNA with 2,6-diaminopurine substituted for adenine. Virology 88:8-18.
Menzel, G., and E. Stenz. 1978. Effect of virazole (ribavirin) on virus-prokaryote systsems. Acta Microbiol. Acad. Sci. Hungary 25:11-15.
Padhy, R. N., and P. K. Singh. 1978. Stabilizing effects of metallic ions in the blue-green algal virus N-1. Biochem. Physiol. Pflanz. 173:188-192.
Padhy, R. N., and P. K. Singh. 1978. Lysogeny in the blue-green alga Nostoc muscorum. Arch. Microbiol. -265
Padhy, R. N., and P. K. Singh. 1978. Reversion of virus N-1 resistant mutant ofthe blue-green alga Nostoc muscorum. Experientia 34:1565
Padhy, R. N., and P. K. Singh. 1978. Effects of host aging, ions, and pH on the adsorption of the cyanovirus N-1 to Nostoc muscorum. Arch. Microbiol. 116:289-292.
Samimi, B., and G. Drews. 1978. Adsorption of cyanophage AS-1 to unicellular cyanobacteria and isolation of receptor material from Anacystis nidulans. J. Virol. 25:164-174.
Sherman, L. A., and R. M. Brown. 1978. Cyanophages and viruses of eukaryotic algae, p. 145-234. In H. Fraenkel-Conrat and R. R. Wagner (eds.), Comprehensive Virology. Plenum Press, New York.
Singh, S. P., and A. K. Kashyap. 1978. Manganese toxicity and mutagenesis in two blue-green algae. Environmental and Experimental Botany 18:47-53.
Stenz, E., and G. Menzel. 1978. [Effect of 1,3,5-triazines on several prokaryote viruses and their hosts]. Zeitsch. Allg. Mikrobiol. 34:748-753.

1977

Al-Musavi, R. A. 1977. Effect of photosynthesis and respiration on growth of cyanophages of Anabaena variabilis. Mikcrobiologiya 46:725-729.
Barkley, M. B., and P. R. Desjardins. 1977. Simple, effective method for purifying the AS-1 cyanophage. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 33:971-974.
Cocito, C., and D. Goldstein. 1977. Inhibition of lytic induction in lysogenic cyanophyces. J. Virol. 23:483-491.
Jenifer, F. G. Studies on the natural relationships of cyanophages and their hosts and the nature of resistance. . 1977. New Brunswick, N.J., Comple.Rep.Water Resour.Res.Inst.
Katz, A., J. Weckesser, G. Drews, and H. Mayer. 1977. Chemical and biological studies on the lipopolysaccharide (O-antigen) of Anacystis nidulans. Arch. Microbiol. 113:247-256.
Khudyakov, I. Y. 1977. Characteristics of a new cyanophage S-2L lysing the unicellular cyanobacterium belonging to the Synechococcus genus. Mikrobiologiia ???:904-907.
Khudyakov, I. Y., M. D. Kirnos, N. I. Aleksandrushkina, and B. F. Vanyushin. 1977. 2,6-Diaminopurine—a new adenine substituting base in DNA of cyanophage S-2. Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR 232:965-968.
Kirnos, M. D., I. Y. Khudyakov, N. I. Alexandrushkina, and B. F. Vanyushin. 1977. 2-Aminoadenine is an adenine substituting for a base in S-2L cyanophage DNA. Nature 270:369-370.
Koz'yakov, S. Y. 1977. Cyanophages of series A (L), specific for blue-green algae Anabaena variabilis, p. 151-171. In B. V. Gromov (ed.), Experimental Algology. Biolog.Sci.Res.Inst., Leningrad State University,
Padhy, R. N., and P. K. Singh. 1977. Effect of temperature on the adsorption and one-step growth of the Nostoc virus N-1. Archives of Microbiology 115:163-167.
Padhy, R. N., and P. K. Singh. 1977. Effect of physical and chemical agents on the blue-green algal virus N-1. Acta Virol. 21:264-267.
Padhy, R. N., and P. K. Singh. 1977. Effect of pH and EDTA on multiplication of blue-green algal virus. Microbios Letters 5:135-139.
Parker, D. L., Jansen, G. P., and Corbett, L. Effects of cyanophage SAM-1 upon Microcystis aeruginosa. EPA-600/3-77-079. 1977. Corvallis, Orgegon, Evironmental Research Laboratory.
Sharma, C. R., G. S. Venkataraman, and N. Prakash. 1977. Cyanophage AC-1 infecting the blue green alga Anacystis nidulans. Curr. Sci. 46:496-497.
Silverberg, J., A. Rimon, M. Kessel, and A. B. Oppenheim. 1977. Assembly site of cyanophage LPP-2-SPI in Plectonema boryanum. Virology 77:437-440.
Singh, R. N., and A. K. Kashyap. 1977. Induction of mutations in the blue-green alga Plectonema boryanum. Mut. Res. 43:37-44.
Singh, R. N., and A. K. Kashyap. 1977. Isolation and characterization of temperature sensitive mutants of cyanophage LPP-1. Mol. Gen. Genet. 154:31-34.
Stagg, C. H., and C. P. Gerba. 1977. Cyanophage as an Indicator of Animal Viruses in Wastewater. Journal / Water Pollution Control Federation 49:1915-1916.
Stanley, J. L., and R. E. Cannon. 1977. Serological typing and chlorination resistance of wastewater cyanophages. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 49:1993-1999.
Stewart, W. D. P., and M. Daft. 1977. Microbial pathogens of cyanophycean blooms, p. 177-218. In M. R. Droop and H. W. Jannasch (eds.), Advances in Aquatic Microbiology. Volume 1. Academic Press, New York.

1976

Allen, M. M., and F. Hutchison. 1976. Effect of some environmental factors on cyanophage AS-1 development in Anacystis nidulans. Archives of Microbiology 110:55-60.
Amla, D. V. 1976. Genetics of cyanophyceae and cyanophages. Banaras Hindu University, India.
Asato, Y. 1976. Ultraviolet light inactivation and photoreactivation of AS-1 cyanophage in Anacystitis nidulans. J. Bacteriol. 126:550-552.
Barkley, M. B. 1976. Ultrastructure of the blue-green algae Anacystis nidulans infected with AS-1 virus. University of California, Riverside.
Borbely, G., M. Kolcsei, and G. L. Farkas. 1976. The??? Post-maturation cleavage of 23S ribosomal-RNA in Anacystis nidulans is inhibited by infection with cyanphage AS-1. Molec. Biol. Rpts. 3:139-142.
Cannon, R. E., M. S. Shane, and J. M. Whitaker. 1976. Interaction of Plectonema boryanum (Cyanophyceae) and the LPP cyanophages in continuous culture. J. Phycol. 12:418-421.
Cocito, C., B. Coucau, and D. Goldstein. 1976. Induction of a lytic cycle in lysogenic cyanophyces, p. 657-662. In AnonymousNucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis in Plants. Strasbourg, France.
Delaney, S. F., M. Herdman, and N. G. Carr. 1976. Genetics of blue-green algae, p. 15-16. In R. A. Lewin (ed.), The Genetics of Algae. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Fox, J. A., S. J. Booth, and E. L. Martin. 1976. Cyanophage SM-2: A new blue-green algal virus. Virology 73:557-560.
Ginzberg, D., E. Padan, and M. Shilo. 1976. Metabolic aspects of LPP cyanophage replication in the cyanobacterium Plectonema boryanum. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 423:440-449.
Goryushin, V. A., E. S. Shatokhina, G. A. Grigoreva, and S. V. Shestakov. 1976. Lysogeny in unicellular blue-green algae. Vestn. Mosk. Univ. ,Ser. VI, Biol. Pochvoved. 31:82-84.
Gromov, B. V. 1976. Microorganisms-Algal Parasites. University of Leningrad Publishing, Leningrad.
Haselkorn, R., and J. Rouviere-Yaniv. 1976. Cyanobacterial DNA-binding protein related to Escherichia coli HU. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 73:1917-1920.
McMillan, J. A. 1976. S-2, a new virus of unicellular cyanobacteria. Univesity of Wisconsin.
Myrvik, A. L., J. M. Whitaker , and R. E. Cannon. 1976. The use of cellulose products to reduce agar concentration in microbiological media. Can. J. Microbiol. 22:1002-1006.
Padhy, R. N., and P. K. Singh. 1976. Mutation to resistance for virus N-1 in the blue-green alga Nostoc muscorum. Arch. Virol. 52:85-90.
Polukhina, L. E., E. A. Karbysheva, and S. V. Shestakova. 1976. Reactivation of ultraviolet irradiated cyanophage AS-1 in cells of the blue-green alga Anacystis nidulans. Vestn. Mosk. Univ. ,Ser. VI, Biol. Pochvoved. 31:30-33.
Raboy, B., E. Padan, and M. Shilo. 1976. Heterotrophic capacities of Plectonema boryanum. Arch. Microbiol. 110:77-85.
Rimon, A., and A. B. Oppenheim. 1976. Protein synthesis following infection of the blue-green alga Plectonema boryanum with the temperate virus SPI and its ts mutants. Virology 71:444-452.
Safferman, R. S., and M. E. Morris. 1976. Assessment of virus removal by a multistage activated sludge process. Water Res. 10:413-420.
Satava, J. 1976. Blue-green algae and cyanophages as a model in molecular biology. Biol. Listy 41:121-124.
Sherman, L. A., M. Connelly, and D. M. Sherman. 1976. Infection of Synechococcus cedrorum by the cyanophage AS-1M. I. Ultrastructure of infection and phage assembly. Virology 71:1-16.
Sherman, L. A., and P. Pauw. 1976. Infection of Synechococcus cedrorun by the cyanophage AS-IM. II. Protein and DNA synthesis. Virology 71:17-27.
Sherman, L. A. 1976. Infection of Synochecoccus cedrorum by the cyanophage AS-1M. III. Cellular metabolism and phage development. Virology 71:199-206.
Sherman, L. A., and M. Connelly. 1976. Isolation and characterization of a cyanophage infecting the unicellular blue-green algae. Virology 72:540-554.
Singh, R. N., and I. J. Chaubev. 1976. The genetics of cyanophyceae and cyanophages: problems and prospects. J. Cytol. Genet. 11:116-121.
Singh, R. N., and A. K. Kashyap. 1976. Mutagenesis in cyanophage LPP-1. Mut. Res. 37:19-25.
Sirenko, L. A., V. O. Myslovich, V. A. Goryushin, and D. P. Mikhailyuk. 1976. Effect of infection with cyanophage AM-1 on the metabolism of the blue-green alga. Fiziol. Rast. 23:1214-1218.
Smedberg, C. T., and R. E. Cannon. 1976. Cyanophage analysis as a biological pollution indicator--bacteria and viral. Journal / Water Pollution Control Federation 48:2416-???
Stewart, W. D. P., and M. J. Daft. 1976. Algal lysing agents of freshwater habitats, p. 63-90. In F. A. Skinner and J. G. Carr (eds.), Microbiology in Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Symposium Series #4. Academic Press, New York.
Udvardy, J., B. Sivok, G. Borbely, and G. L. Farkas. 1976. Formation in the dark of virus-induced deoxyribonuclease activity in Anacystis nidulans, an obligate photoautotroph. J. Bacteriol. 126:630-633.
Zatula, D. G., V. G. Pilipenko, M. I. Mendzhul, N. V. Nesterova, and T. G. Lysenko. 1976. Studies in intracellular development and dynamics of biosynthesis of lytic enzymes of cyanophage LPP-1A in Plectonema boryanum cells. Proc. Acad. Sci. ,URSR 2:178-181.

1975

Booth, S. 1975. Isolation, identification, and partial characterization of cyanophage LPP-2N. University of Nebraska.
Cowlishaw, J., and M. Mrsa. 1975. Co-evolution of a virus-alga system. Appl. Microbiol. 29:234-239. full text
Gromov, B. V., I. Ya. Khudyakov, and K. A. Mamkaeva. 1975. An electron microscopic study of the intracellular development of cyanophage A-4(L). Bull. Leningrad Univ. 15:74-76.
Kozyakov, S. Y., and L. P. Efremova. 1975. A comparative study of the cyanophages of Anabaena variabilis. Bull. Leningrad Univ. 21:104-106.
Mendzhul, M. I., S. P. Bobrovnik, T. G. Lysenko, and A. D. Schved. 1975. Effect of certain physioco-chemical factors on the infectivity of cyanophages. Mikrobiol. Zh. 37:73-79.
Menzel, G., E. Stenz, I. M. Toure, B. Gebler, and G. Schuster. 1975. [Effect of several plant growth regulators on various prokaryotes and their viruses]. Z Allg Mikrobiol 15:259-268.
Nesterova, N. V., V. G. Pilipenko, M. I. Mendzhul, and S. K. Votselko. 1975. Study of the structural proteins of LPP-1A cyanophage. Mikrobiol. Zh. 37:606-609.
Pearson, N. J., E. A. Small, and M. M. Allen. 1975. Electron microscopic study of the infection of Anacystis nidulans by the cyanophage AS-1. Virology 65:469-479.
Pilipenko, V. G., N. V. Nesterova, M. I. Mendzhul, and S. P. Bobrovnik. 1975. Certain properties of lytic enzymes of LPP-1A cyanophage. Mikrobiol. Zh. 37:460-467.
Rimon, A., and A. B. Oppenheim. 1975. Heat induction of the blue-green alga Plectonema boryanium lysogenic for the cyanophage SPIctsI. Virology 64:454-463.
Singh, P. 1975. Photoreactivation of UV-irradiated blue-green algae and algal virus LPP-1. Arch. Mikrobiol. 103:297-302. abstract
Singh, P. K. 1975. Sensitization of algal virus to UV by the incorporation of 5-bromouracil and mutations of host alga Plectonema boryanum. Zeitsch. Allg. Mikrobiol. 15:547-552.
Singh, P. K. 1975. Lysogeny of blue-green alga Plectonuma boryanum by long tailed virus. Mol. Gen. Genet. 137:181-183.

1974

Cannon, R. E., M. S. Shange, and E. DeMichele. 1974. Ecology of blue-green algal viruses. J. Environ. Eng. Div. , ASCE 100:1205-1211.
Chang, H. Y. Y., and M. M. Allen. 1974. The isolation of rhapidosomes from the blue-green alga, Spirulina. J. Gen. Microbiol. 18:121-???
Goryushin, V. A., S. M. Chaplinskaya, O. A. Shainskaya, and V. N. Lakosnik. 1974. Viruses lysing blue-green algae, p. 45-53. In Viruses and Viral Diseases of Plants. Naukova Dumka, Kiev.
Goryushin, V. A., and S. M. Chaplinskaya. 1974. Viruses of blue-green algae, p. 9-17. In V. D. Federov and M. M. Telitchenko (eds.), Topical Problems of the Biology of Bluegrene Algae. Nauka, Moscow.
Gromov, B., S. Y. Kozyakov, K. A. Mamkaeva, and E. I. Gaevskaya. 1974. Electron microscopic study of cyanophage A-1(L) development in the cells of blue-green alga Anabaena variabilis. Bull. Acad. Sci. USSR,Biol. 2:286-288.
Karbysheva, E. A., V. A. Goryushin, D. P. Mikhailyuk, and S. V. Shestakov. 1974. A study of the survival of cyanophage AM-1 irradiated with UV and x-rays in cells of radiosensitive mutants of the blue-green alga Anacystis nidulans. Biol. Nauki. 17:118-121.
Kozyakov, S. Y. 1974. A study of the development of cyanophage A-1(L) in a culture of the blue-green alga Anabaena variabilis. Bull. Leningrad Univ. 15:102-108.
McLaughlin, T., and N. Lazaroff. 1974. Photosensitization of cyanophage N-1. J. Gen. Virol. 25:171-174.
Mendzhul, M. I., V. V. Zhygir , S. P. Bobrovnik, and T. G. Lysenko. 1974. Some biological properties of cyanophage LPP-1 strain. Mikrobiol. Zh. 36:185-189.
Mendzhul, M. I., V. V. Zhygir , S. P. Bobrovnik, and T. G. Lysenko. 1974. Identification of virus LPP-1 isolates from artificial water bodies of the Dnieper. Mikrobiol. Zh. 36:47-53.
Mendzhul, M. I., S. A. Bobrovnik, and T. G. Lysenko. 1974. Study of cyanophage LPP-1 adsorption onto cells of cyanophyceae (Plectonema boryanum). Vop. Virus 1:31-36.
Moskovets, S. M., M. I. Mendzhul, N. V. Nesterova, N. S. Dyachenko, N. P. Vantsak, and T. G. Lysenko. 1974. Infection of HeLa cells with nucleic acids of LPP group algophages. Mikrobiol. Zh. 36:43-46.
Reim, R. L., M. S. Shane, and R. E. Cannon. 1974. The characterization of a bacillus capsule of blue-green bacteriocidal activity. Can. J. Microbiol. 20:981-986.
Rimon, A., and A. B. Oppenheim. 1974. Isolation and genetic mapping of temperature-sensitive mutants of cyanophage LPP2-SPI. Virology 62:454-569.
Schnayer, N., and F. G. Jenifer. 1974. Inactivation of blue-green alga virus, AS-1, by isolated host lipopolysaccharide. Proc. Am. Phytopath. Soc. 1:144
Singh, P. K. 1974. Isolation and characterization of a new virus infecting the blue-green alga Plectonema boryanum. Virology 58:586-588.
Venkataraman, G. S., and B. D. Kaushik. 1974. Cyanophages. New Botanist 1:96-102.
Vorontsova, G. V., E. A. Karbysheva, V. A. Goryushin, and S. V. Shestakov. 1974. Effect of caffeine and acriflavine on survival of UV-irradiated cyanophage AM-1 in the cells of radiosensitive mutants of Anacystis nidulans. Biol. Nauki. 11:107-110.

1973

Adolph, K. W., and R. Haselkorn. 1973. Isolation and characterization of a virus infecting a blue-green alga of genus Synechococcus. Virology 54:230-236.
Adolph, K. W., and R. Haselkorn. 1973. Blue-green algal virus N-1: Physical properties and disassembly into structural parts. Virology 53:427-440.
Cannon, R. E. 1973. The effect of stress and non-stress conditions upon the interaction of Plectonema boryanum and the LPP-phycoviruses. University of Delaware.
Chaubey, I. J. 1973. Genetics of blue-green algae and their viruses: isolation, characterization and mutagenesis of cyanophages. Banaras Hindu University, India.
Choudhury, I. D. 1973. Genetics of blue-green algae and their viruses. Banaras Hindu University, India.
Kaushik, B. D., and G. S. Venkataraman. 1973. Isolation of a new cyanophage, TAuHN-1. Current Science 42:395-396.
Khudyakov, I. Y., and B. V. Gromov. 1973. The temperate cyanophage A-4 (L) of the blue-green alga Anabaena variabilis. Mikrobiologiia 904-907.
Kirillova, F. M., and S. M. Chaplinskaya. 1973. Morphogenesis of the virus of blue-green algae studied by electron microscopy. Mikrobiologiia 42:510-512.
Mendzhul, M. I., T. G. Lysenko, S. A. Bobrovnik, and M. Y. Spivak. 1973. Detection of A-1 virus of blue-green alga Anabaena varibilitis in the Kremenchug artificial reservoir. Microbiol. Zh. 35:747-751.
Nesterova, N. V., T. S. Sagun , V. G. Pilipenko, and N. I. Aleksandrushkina. 1973. Nucleotide composition of DNA in blue-green alga Plectonema boryanum and virus LPP-1. Mikrobiol. Zh. 35:126-129.
Padan, E., and M. Shilo. 1973. Cyanophages—viruses attacking blue-green algae. Bacteriol. Rev. 37:343-370.
Safferman, R. S. 1973. Phycoviruses, p. 214-237. In N. G. Carr and B. A. Whitton (eds.), The Biology of Blue-Green Algae. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Safferman, R. S. 1973. Special methods—virus detection in cyanophyceae, p. 145-158. In J. R. Stein (ed.), Handbook of Phycological Methods-Culture Methods and Growth Measurements. Cambridge University Press, London.
Topatschewsky, A. V., and L. A. Sirenko. 1973. Ecophysiological aspects of blooming and the problem of pure water. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 18:1338-1347.
Venkataraman, G. S., B. D. Kaushik, G. Subramanian, S. Shanmugasundaram, and A. Govindarajan. 1973. Cyanophage AC-1: a phage infecting unicellular and colonial blue-green algae. Current Science 42:104-105.

1972

Adolph, K. W., and R. Haselkorn. 1972. Comparison of the structures of blue-green algal viruses LPP-IM and LPP-2 and bacteriophage T7. Virology 47:701-710.
Adolph, K. W., and R. Haselkorn. 1972. Photosynthesis and the development of the blue-green algal virus N-1. Virology 47:370-374.
Adolph, K. W. 1972. Isolation and characterization of viruses infecting blue-green algae. University of Chicago.
Cannon, R. E., and M. S. Shane. 1972. The effect of antibiotic stress on protein synthesis in the establishment of lysogeny of Plectonema boryanum. Virology 49:130-133.
Desjardins, P. R., and M. B. Barkley. 1972. AS-1 virus adsorption to cells and spheroplasts of Synechococcus cedrorum. Ann. Proc. Electron Microscope Soc. Am. 30:332-333.
Dhar, B. 1972. Genetics of blue-green algae and their viruses. Banaras Hindu University, India.
Fjerdingstad, E. 1972. Gas vacuoles and other virus-like structures in blue-green algae. Schweiz. Zeitsch. Hydrologie 34:135-154.
Granhall, U. 1972. Aphanizomenon flow-aquae: infection by cyanophages. Physiol. Plantarum 26:332-337. abstract & pay article
Koz'yakov, S. Y. 1972. Cyanophage A-1 (L) of the blue-green alga Anabaena variabilis. Microbiology 41:486-489.
Kozyakov, S. Y., B. V. Gromov , and I. Y. Khudyakov. 1972. A-1(L)—cyanophage of the blue-green alga Anabaena variabilis. Mikrobiologiia 41:555-559.
MacKenzie, J. J., and R. Haselkorn. 1972. An electron microscope study of infection by the blue-green algal virus SM-1. Virology 49:505-516.
MacKenzie, J. J. 1972. An investigation of the blue-green algae virus SM-1. University of Chicago.
MacKenzie, J. J., and R. Haselkorn. 1972. Physical properties of blue-green algal virus SM-1 and its DNA. Virology 49:497-504.
MacKenzie, J. J., and R. Haselkorn. 1972. Photosynthesis and the development of blue-green algal virus SM-1. Virology 49:517-521.
Mendzhul, M. I., V. V. Zhygir , and T. G. Lysenko. 1972. Concentration of LPP-1 using polyethylene glycol. Mikrobiol. Zh. 34:375-377.
Padan, E., M. Shilo, and A. B. Oppenheim. 1972. Lysogeny of the blue-green alga Plectonema boryanum by LPP2-SP1 cyanophage. Virology 47:525-526.
Safferman, R. S., T. O. Diener, P. R. Desjardins, and M. E. Morris. 1972. Isolation and characterization of AS-1, a phycovirus infecting the blue-green algae, Anacystis nidulans and Synechococcus cedrorum. Virology 47:105-113.
Shane, M. S., R. E. Cannon, and E. DeMichele. 1972. Pollution effects on phycovirus and host algae ecology. Journal / Water Pollution Control Federation 44:2294-2302.
Shilo, M. 1972. The ecology of cyanophages. Bamidgeh 24:76-82.
Singh, R. N., P. K. Singh, A. K. Kashyap, T. A. Sarma, B. Dhar, I. J. Chaubey, and I. D. Choudhury. 1972. Isolation and characterization of new cyanophages and mutations of LPP-1 and host alga Plectonema boryanum, p. 585-591. In T. V. Desikachary (ed.), Taxonomy and Biology of Blue-Green Algae. University of Madra Press, India.
Singh, R. N., and P. K. Singh. 1972. Ultraviolet damage, modifications and repair of blue-green algae and their viruses, p. 246-272. In T. V. Desikachary (ed.), Taxonomy and Biology of Blue-Green Algae. Madras Press, India.
Singh, R. N., and P. K. Singh. 1972. Transduction and lysogeny in blue-green algae, p. 258-262. In T. V. Desikachary (ed.), Taxonomy and Biology of Blue-Green Algae. University of Madras Press, Madras, India.
Stepaniuk, V. V., M. I. Mandzhul, V. V. Zhygir, S. P. Bobrovnik, and N. V. Nesterova. 1972. Electron microscopic study of DNA and the virus of Plectonema boryanum. Mikrobiol. Zh. 34:748-753.

1971

Adolph, K. W., and R. Haselkorn. 1971. Isolation and characterization of a virus infecting the blue-green alga Nostoc muscorum. Virology 46:200-208.
Cannon, R. E., M. S. Shane, and V. N. Bush. 1971. Lysogeny of a blue-green alga Plectonema boryanum. Virology 45:149-153.
Kashyap, A. K. 1971. Mutagenesis in cyanophage LPP-1 and its host alga Plectonema boryanum. Banaras Hindu University, India.
Mendzhul, M. I., and V. V. Zhygir. 1971. Formation of the infectious form of the blue-green algal virus in plant tissue culture. Mikrobiol. Zh. 35:601-605.
Mendzhul, M. I., and V. V. Zhygir. 1971. Electron microscopic investigation of the caudal process structure of the virus LPP-1 isolate. Mikrobiol. Zh. 33:460-464.
Moskovets, S. M., N. V. Nesterova, S. K. Votselko, V. V. Stepaniuk, M. I. Mendzhul, and V. G. Pilipenko. 1971. Physical characteristics and electron microscopy of virus LPP-1 DNA. Mikrobiol. Zh. 33:583-589.
Moskovets, S. M., M. I. Mendzhul, N. V. Nesterova, O. S. Khil, and V. V. Zhygir. 1971. A virus lysing certain species of blue-green algae. Biol. Nauki. 14:88-91.
Padan, E., B. Raboy, and M. Shilo. 1971. Endogenous dark respiration of the blue-green alga, Plectonema boryanum. J. Bacteriol. 106:45-50.
Padan, E., A. Rimon, D. Ginzberg, and M. Shilo. 1971. A thermosensitive cyanophage (LPP1-G) attacking the blue-green alga Plectonema boryanum. Virology 45:773-776.
Shane, M. S. 1971. Distribution of blue-green algal viruses in various types of natural waters. Water Res. 5:711-716.
Sherman, L. A., and R. Haselkorn. 1971. Growth the blue-green algae virus LPP-1 under conditions which impair photosynthesis. Virology 45:739-746.
Shilo, M. 1971. Biological agents which cause lysis of blue-green algae. Vehr. Int. Verein. Limnol. 19:206-213.

1970

Daft, M. J., J. Begg, and W. D. P. Stewart. 1970. A virus of blue-green algae from freshwater habitats in Scotland. New Phytol. 69:1029-1038.
Dhaliwal, A. S., and G. K. Dhaliwal. 1970. Physiology of algae and the in-vivo multiplication of algal virus. Adv. Frontiers Plant. Sci. 24:65-74.
Gromov, B. V., and S. Kozyakov. 1970. A study of the peculiarities of the interrelationship between a blue-green algal population Plectonema boryanum and cyanophage LPP-1. Bull. Leningrad Univ. 1:128-135.
Padan, E., D. Ginzburg, and M. Shilo. 1970. The reproductive cycle of cyanophage LPP1-G in Plectonema boryanum and its dependence on photosynthetic and respiratory systems. Virology 40:514-521.
Sherman, L. A., and R. Haselkorn. 1970. LPP-1 infection of the blue-green alga Plectonema boryanum. III. Protein synthesis. J. Virol. 6:841-846.
Sherman, L. A. 1970. The structure and replication of the blue-green algae virus, LPP-1. University of Chicago.
Sherman, L. A., and R. Haselkorn. 1970. Infection of the blue-green alga Plectonema boryanum. J. Virol. 6:820-846.
Sherman, L. A., and R. Haselkorn. 1970. LPP-1 infection of the blue-green alga Plectonema boryanum. II. Viral deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis and host deoxyribonucleic acid breakdown. J. Virol. 6:834-840.
Sherman, L. A., and R. Haselkorn. 1970. LPP-1 infection of the blue-green alga Plectonema boryanum. I. electron microscopy. J. Virol. 6:820-833.

Publications (1960s)

1969

Cowie, D. B., and L. Prager. 1969. Cyanophyta and their viruses, p. 391-397. In Carnegie Institution of Washington Yearbook. Carnegie Institute of Washington, Washington, DC.
Granhall, U., and A. van Hofsten. 1969. The ultrastructure of a cyanophage attack on Anabaena variabilis. Physiol. Plantarum 22:713-722. abstract & pay article
Padan, E., and M. Shilo. 1969. Distribution of cyanophages in natural habitats. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 17:747-751. abstract summary & pay article
Peelen, R. 1969. Possibilities to prevent blue-green algal growth in the Delta region of the Netherlands. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 17:763-766.
Safferman, R. S., I. R. Schneider, R. L. Steere, M. E. Morris, and T. O. Diener. 1969. Phycovirus SM-1: a virus infecting unicellular blue-green algae. Virology 37:386-395. abstract & pay article
Safferman, R. S., M. E. Morris, L. A. Sherman, and R. Haselkorn. 1969. Serological and electron microscopic characterization of a new group of blue-green algae viruses (LPP-2). Virology 39:775-781.
Shilo, M. 1969. New approaches to the control of harmful brackish and fresh water algae of economic importance. Biotech. Bioeng. Symp. 1:177-184.

1968

Dhaliwal, A. S., and G. K. Dhaliwal. 1968. Chromatographic purification of blue-green algal virus LPP-1. Adv. Frontiers Plant. Sci. 21:195-203.
Etana, P., and M. Shilo. 1968. Spread of viruses attacking blue-green algae in freshwater ponds and their interaction with Plectonema boryanum. Bamidgeh 20:77-88.
Ginzberg, D., E. Padan, and M. Shilo. 1968. Effect of cyanophage infection on CO2 photoassimilation in Plectonema boryanum. J. Virol. 2:695-701. full text
Goryushin, V. A., and S. M. Chaplinskaya. 1968. Finding of the viruses lysing blue-green algae, p. 171-174. In Blooming Waters. Scientific Thought Publishing House, Kiev.
Luftig, R., and R. Haselkorn. 1968. Comparison of blue-green algae virus LPP-1 and mophologically related viruses G111 and coliphage T7. Virology 34:675-678.
Luftig, R., and R. Haselkorn. 1968. Studies on the structure of blue-green algae virus LPP-1. Virology 34:664-674. abstract & pay article
Safferman, R. S. 1968. Virus diseases in blue-green algae, p. 429-439. In D. F. Jackson (ed.), Algae, Man and the Environment. Syracuse University Press, New York.
Wu, J. H., G. L. Choules, and R. A. Lewin. 1968. Early stages of the infection process in a blue-green algal virus system, as affected by KCN and light, p. 153-160. In Biochemical Regulation in Diseased Plants or Injury. The Phytopathological Society of Japan, Tokyo.

1967

Goldstein, D. A., and I. J. Bendet. 1967. Physical properties of the DNA from the blue-green algal virus LPP-1. Virology 32:614-618.
Goldstein, D. A., I. J. Bendet, M. A. Lauffer, and K. M. Smith. 1967. Some biological and physiochemical properties of blue-green algal virus LPP-1. Virology 32:601-613.
Luftig, R., and R. Haselkorn. 1967. Morphology of a virus of blue-green algae and properties of its deoxyribonucleic acid. J. Virol. 1:344-361. full text
Padan, E., M. Shilo, and N. Kislev. 1967. Isolation of "cyanophages" from freshwater ponds and their interaction with Plectonema boryanum. Virology 32:234-246. abstract & pay article
Safferman, R. S., and M. E. Morris. 1967. Observation of the occurrence, distribution and seasonal incidence of blue-green algal viruses. Appl. Microbiol. 15:1219-1222. full text
Shane, M. S., S. B. Wilson, and C. R. Fries. 1967. Virus-host system for use in the study of virus removal. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 59:1184-1186.
Singh, P. K. 1967. Occurrence and distribution of cyanophages in ponds, sewage and rice fields. Arch. Mikrobiol 89:169-172. abstract & pay article
Singh, R. N., and P. K. Singh. 1967. Isolation of cyanophages from India. Nature 216:1020-1021. abstract and pay article
Smith, K. M., R. M. Brown, Jr., P. L. Walne, and D. A. Goldstein. 1967. Ultrastructural and time-lapse studies on the replication cycle of the blue-green algal virus LPP-1. Virology 31:329-337. abstract & pay article
Werbin, H., J. H. Wu, and R. Lewin. 1967. In vivo and in vitro photoreactivation studies with blue-green alga, Plectonema boryanum and its virus, LPP-1. Texas J. Sci. 19:436-437.
Wu, J. H., R. A. Lewin, and H. Werbin. 1967. Photoreactivation of UV-irradiated blue-green alga virus LPP-1. Virology 31:657-664. abstract
Wu.J.H., and P. M. Shugarman. 1967. Effect of virus infection rate on photosynthesis and respiration of a blue-green alga, Plectonema boryanum. Virology 32:166-167. pay article

Luftig, R. B. 1967. Studies onf cyanophages LPP-1. University of Chicago. Ph.D. thesis.

1966

Brown, R. M., Jr., K. M. Smith, and P. L. Walne. 1966. Replication cycle of the blue-green algal virus LPP-1. Nature 212:729-730. abstract & pay article
Goryushin, V. A., and S. M. Chaplinskaya. 1966. Existence of viruses of blue-green algae. Mickrobiol. Zh. Akad. Nauk. RSR 28:94-97.
Rubenchik, L. I., O. I. Bershova, N. S. Novikova, and Z. P. Kopteva. 1966. Lysis of the blue-green alga Microcystis pulverea. Mikrobiol. Zh. Acad. Nauk. Ukr. 28:88-91.
Smith, K. M., R. M. Brown, Jr., D. A. Goldstein, and P. L. Walne. 1966. Culture methods for the blue-green alga Plectonema boryanum and its virus with an electron microscope study of the virus-infected cells. Virology 28:580-591. NCBI link, no abstract
Smith, K. M., R. M. Brown, Jr., P. L. Walne, and D. A. Goldstein. 1966. Electron microscopy of the infection process of the blue-green alga virus. Virology 30:182-192. abstract & pay article

1965-1963 Publications (ascending-date order)

Safferman, R. S., and M. E. Morris. 1964. Growth characteristics of the blue-green algal virus LPP-1. J. Bacteriol. 88:771-775. full text
Safferman, R. S., and M. E. Morris. 1964. Control of algae with viruses. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 56:1217-1224.
Schneider, I. R., T. O. Diener, and R. S. Safferman. 1964. Blue-green algal virus LPP-1: purification and partial characterization. Science 144:1127-1130. abstract & pay article
Safferman, R. S., and M. E. Morris. 1963. Algal virus: isolation. Science 140:679-680. abstract & pay article

New BEG Members

go to www.phage.org/beg_join.htm for joining information

name		address/research interests
Angus Buckling (BEG link)	PI	Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PS, UK
Angus Buckling (BEG link)	Interests:	Bacteria-phage antagonistic coevolution; phage as drivers of bacterial diversity; evolution of phage life histories.
Zehua Chen (BEG link)		Bldg 469 Room 215, NCI-Frederick, Frederick, MD 21702
Zehua Chen (BEG link)	Interests:	Molecular information theory based T7-like promoter models and SD models; Evolutionary analysis and classification of T7-like phages and their transcription systems; Analysis of T7-like promoter containing regions in microbial genomes.
Siobain Duffy (BEG link)		Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, Osborn Memorial Laboratories, 165 Prospect Street, PO Box 208106, New Haven, CT 06520-8106
Siobain Duffy (BEG link)	Interests:	Phage as model viral systems; Experimental evolution; Disease ecology and evolution.
Juan Jofre (BEG link)	PI	Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Diagonal 645. 08028 Barcelona. (Spain.)
Juan Jofre (BEG link)	Interests:	Use of phages as indicators of faecal pollution in the environment (specifically water and compost models). Establishments of different methodologies (ISO) for the enumeration of phages as indicators. Development of the ISO method for enumeration of Bacteroides fragilis phages. Research on bacteriophages as elements for horizontal genetic transfer.
Matt Jones (BEG link)		OmniLytics, Inc., 5450 W. Wiley Post Way, Salt Lake City, UT 84116
Matt Jones (BEG link)	Interests:	Development and optimization of commercial bacteriophage applications in agriculture, food & water safety, industrial, pharmaceutical, and defense.
Kate Newton (BEG link)		Department of Microbiology, University of Liverpool John Moores, L3 3AF. England
Kate Newton (BEG link)	Interests:	Interactions between phage as competitors in environments similar to that of sewage. In particular, comparisons of host range, replication speeds, structure, and attachment.
Aldwin Ong (BEG link)		Department of Biology, Ateneo de Manila University, Loyola Heights, Quezon City, Philippines
Aldwin Ong (BEG link)	Interests:	Use of mitomycin-C for lytic cycle induction of temperate bacteriophage in Escherichia coli MH2700 and some other pathogenic bacteria.
Andrzej Piekarowicz (BEG link)	PI	Institut of Microbiology, Warsaw University, Miecznikowa 1
Andrzej Piekarowicz (BEG link)	Interests:	Bacteriophages of Haemophilus influenzae.
Ramesh Prakash (BEG link)	PI	OmniLytics, Inc., 5450 W. Wiley Post Way, Salt Lake City, UT 84116
Ramesh Prakash (BEG link)	Interests:	Development and optimization of commercial bacteriophage applications in agriculture, food & water safety, industrial, pharmaceutical, and defense.
Randy Scott (BEG link)	PI	OmniLytics, Inc., 5450 W. Wiley Post Way, Salt Lake City, UT 84116
Randy Scott (BEG link)	Interests:	Development and optimization of commercial bacteriophage applications in agriculture, food & water safety, industrial, pharmaceutical, and defense.
Télesphore Sime-Ngando (BEG link)	PI	Laboratoire de Biologie des Protistes, Université Blaise Pascal, F - 63177 Aubière Cedex, France
Télesphore Sime-Ngando (BEG link)	Interests:	Phage-bacteria community ecology in freshwaters ecosystems.
Shanmuga Sozhamannan (BEG link)	PI	Biological Defense Research Directorate, Naval Medical Research Center, BDRD Annex, 12300 Washington Avenue, Rockville, MD 20852
Shanmuga Sozhamannan (BEG link)	Interests:	I am interested in the biology of phages infecting bacterial pathogens relevant to biodefense and the use of phages in various biodefense applications such as bacterial detection, vaccine development and therapeutics.
Constantinos A. Vorkas (BEG link)	PI	1, Ouralion Street, P.O. Box 53321 CY-3302 Limassol, CYPRUS
Constantinos A. Vorkas (BEG link)	Interests:	Wastewater treatment and disposal, Water treatment, Appropriate technologies in water and wastewater treatment, Pollution control and water resources management, Environmental health, Wastewater reuse, Water supply surveillance & quality control, Environmental and catchment surveillance (GIS, Remote surveillance, Biotic monitoring), New methods in microbiological and environmental monitoring.

New Phage-Ecology References

(see www.phage.org/beg_mission_statement.htm for

why papers covering more than just bacteriophages are included)

Bacteriophages:

Biology and Applications

Richard Calendar

plus Stephen T. Abedon (eds)

Cambridge University Press

ISBN 0-195-14850-9

746 pages

For Table of Contents and ordering information, see

www.TheBacteriophages.org

1. Abedon,S.T. (2006). Phage ecology. pp. 37-46 In Calendar,R. and Abedon,S.T. (eds.), The Bacteriophages. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Abstract: Phages are found nearly everywhere bacteria are found and phage ecology is the study of the interactions between phages and their environments. These interactions are consequential, particularly to the extent that they affect bacteria. During the molecular characterization of phages, however, traditionally only minimal consideration of their ecology is made. Bucking these trends, here I consider, from a phage's perspective, organismal, population, community, and ecosystem ecology (Table 1). For additional approaches to the review of phage ecology as well as the related field of phage environmental microbiology see [REFS] plus various recent reviews of aquatic and ecosystem phage ecology [REFS]. Visit www.phage.org for additional phage-ecology resources.

ID to above reference = 6777

2. Attoui,H., Jaafar,F.M., Belhouchet,M., de Micco,P., de Lamballerie,X., Brussaard,C.P. (2006). Micromonas pusilla reovirus: a new member of the family Reoviridae assigned to a novel proposed genus (Mimoreovirus). J. Gen. Virol. 87:1375-1383. Abstract: Micromonas pusilla reovirus (MpRV) is an 11-segmented, double-stranded RNA virus isolated from the marine protist Micromonas pusilla. Sequence analysis (including conserved termini and presence of core motifs of reovirus polymerase), morphology and physicochemical properties confirmed the status of MpRV as a member of the family Reoviridae. Electron microscopy showed that intact virus particles are unusually larger (90-95 nm) than the known size of particles of viruses belonging to the family Reoviridae. Particles that were purified on caesium chloride gradients had a mean size of 75 nm (a size similar to the size of intact particles of members of the family Reoviridae), indicating that they lost outer-coat components. The subcore particles had a mean size of 50 nm and a smooth surface, indicating that MpRV belongs to the non-turreted Reoviridae. The maximum amino acid identity with other reovirus proteins was 21 %, which is compatible with values existing between distinct genera. Based on morphological and sequence findings, this virus should be classified as the representative of a novel genus within the family Reoviridae, designated Mimoreovirus (from Micromonas pusilla reovirus). The topology of the phylogenetic tree built with putative polymerase sequences of the family Reoviridae suggested that the branch of MpRV could be ancestral. Further analysis showed that segment 1 of MpRV was much longer (5792 bp) than any other reovirus segment and encoded a protein of 200 kDa (VP1). This protein exhibited significant similarities to O-glycosylated proteins, including viral envelope proteins, and is likely to represent the additional outer coat of MpRV.

ID to above reference = 16299

3. Avsaroglu,M.D., Buzrul,S., Alpas,H., Akcelik,M., Bozoglu,F. (2006). Use of the Weibull model for lactococcal bacteriophage inactivation by high hydrostatic pressure. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 108:78-83. Abstract: Four lactococcal bacteriophages (fLl6-2, fLl35-6, fLd66-36 and fLd67-42) in M17 broth were pressurized at 300 and 350 MPa at room temperature and their survival curves were determined at various time intervals. Tailing (monotonic upward concavity) was observed in all survival curves. The resulting non-linear semi-logarithmic survival curves were described by the Weibull model and goodness of fit of this model was investigated. Regression coefficients (R2), root mean square error (RMSE), residual and correlation plots strongly suggested that Weibull model produced a better fit to the data than the traditional linear model. Hazard plots suggested that the Weibull model was fully appropriate for the data being analyzed. These results have confirmed that the Weibull model, which is mostly utilized to describe the inactivation of bacterial cells or spores by heat and pressure, could be successfully used in describing the lactococcal bacteriophage inactivation by high hydrostatic pressure.

ID to above reference = 16373

4. Bettarel,Y., Bouvy,M. , Dumont,C., Sime-Ngando,T. (2006). Virus-bacterium interactions in water and sediment of West African inland water system. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72:5274-5282. Abstract: The ecology of virioplankton in tropical aquatic ecosystems is poorly documented, and in particular, there are no references concerning African continental waters in the literature. In this study, we examined virusbacterium interactions in the pelagic and benthic zones of seven contrasting shallow inland waters in Senegal, including one hypersaline lake. SYBR Gold-stained samples revealed that in the surface layers of the sites, the numbers of viruses were in the same range as the numbers of viruses reported previously for productive temperate systems. Despite high bacterial production rates, the percentages of visibly infected cells (as determined by transmission electron microscopy) were similar to the lowest percentages (range, 0.3 to 1.1%; mean, 0.5%) found previously at pelagic freshwater or marine sites, presumably because of the local environmental and climatic conditions. Since the percentages of lysogenic bacteria were consistently less than 8% for pelagic and benthic samples, lysogeny did not appear to be a dominant strategy for virus propagation at these sites. In the benthic samples, viruses were highly concentrated, but paradoxically, no bacteria were visibly infected. This suggests that sediment provides good conditions for virus preservation but ironically is an unfavorable environment for proliferation. In addition, given the comparable size distributions of viruses in the water and sediment samples, our results support the paradigm that aquatic viruses are ubiquitous and may have moved between the two compartments of the shallow systems examined. Overall, this study provides additional information about the relevance of viruses in tropical areas and indicates that the intensity of virus-bacterium interactions in benthic habitats may lower than the intensity in the adjacent bodies of water.

ID to above reference = 16568

5. Bordenstein,S.R., Marshall,M.L., Fry,A.J., Kim,U., Wernegreen,J.J. (2006). The tripartite associations between bacteriophage, Wolbachia, and arthropods. PLoS Pathog. 2:e43. Abstract: By manipulating arthropod reproduction worldwide, the heritable endosymbiont Wolbachia has spread to pandemic levels. Little is known about the microbial basis of cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) except that bacterial densities and percentages of infected sperm cysts associate with incompatibility strength. The recent discovery of a temperate bacteriophage (WO-B) of Wolbachia containing ankyrin-encoding genes and virulence factors has led to intensifying debate that bacteriophage WO-B induces CI. However, current hypotheses have not considered the separate roles that lytic and lysogenic phage might have on bacterial fitness and phenotype. Here we describe a set of quantitative approaches to characterize phage densities and its associations with bacterial densities and CI. We enumerated genome copy number of phage WO-B and Wolbachia and CI penetrance in supergroup A- and B-infected males of the parasitoid wasp Nasonia vitripennis. We report several findings: (1) variability in CI strength for A-infected males is positively associated with bacterial densities, as expected under the bacterial density model of CI, (2) phage and bacterial densities have a significant inverse association, as expected for an active lytic infection, and (3) CI strength and phage densities are inversely related in A-infected males; similarly, males expressing incomplete CI have significantly higher phage densities than males expressing complete CI. Ultrastructural analyses indicate that approximately 12% of the A Wolbachia have phage particles, and aggregations of these particles can putatively occur outside the Wolbachia cell. Physical interactions were observed between approximately 16% of the Wolbachia cells and spermatid tails. The results support a low to moderate frequency of lytic development in Wolbachia and an overall negative density relationship between bacteriophage and Wolbachia. The findings motivate a novel phage density model of CI in which lytic phage repress Wolbachia densities and therefore reproductive parasitism. We conclude that phage, Wolbachia, and arthropods form a tripartite symbiotic association in which all three are integral to understanding the biology of this widespread endosymbiosis. Clarifying the roles of lytic and lysogenic phage development in Wolbachia biology will effectively structure inquiries into this research topic.

ID to above reference = 16612

6. Buckling,A., Wei,Y., Massey,R.C., Brockhurst,M.A., Hochberg,M.E. (2006). Antagonistic coevolution with parasites increases the cost of host deleterious mutations. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 273:45-49. Abstract: The fitness consequences of deleterious mutations are sometimes greater when individuals are parasitized, hence parasites may result in the more rapid purging of deleterious mutations from host populations. The significance of host deleterious mutations when hosts and parasites antagonistically coevolve (reciprocal evolution of host resistance and parasite infectivity) has not previously been experimentally investigated. We addressed this by coevolving the bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens and a parasitic bacteriophage in laboratory microcosms, using bacteria with high and low mutation loads. Directional coevolution between bacterial resistance and phage infectivity occurred in all populations. Bacterial population fitness, as measured by competition experiments with ancestral genotypes in the absence of phage, declined with time spent coevolving. However, this decline was significantly more rapid in bacteria with high mutation loads, suggesting the cost of bacterial resistance to phage was greater in the presence of deleterious mutations (synergistic epistasis). As such, resistance to phage was more costly to evolve in the presence of a high mutation load. Consistent with these data, bacteria with high mutation loads underwent less rapid directional coevolution with their phage populations, and showed lower levels of resistance to their coevolving phage populations. These data suggest that coevolution with parasites increases the rate at which deleterious mutations are purged from host populations.

ID to above reference = 16401

7. Bull,J.J., Millstein,J., Orcutt,J., Wichman,H.A. (2006). Evolutoinary feedback mediated through population density, illustrated with viruses in chemostats. Am. Nat. 167:E39-E51. Abstract: A cornerstone of evolutionary ecology is that population density affects adaptation: r and K selection is the obvious example. The reverse is also appreciated: adaptation impacts population density. Yet, empirically demonstrating a direct connection between population density and adaptation is challenging. Here, we address both evolution and ecology of population density in models of viral (bacteriophage) chemostats. Chemostats supply nutrients for host cell growth, and the hosts are prey for viral reproduction. Two different chemostat designs have profoundly different consequences for viral evolution. If host and virus are confined to the same chamber, as in a predator-prey system, viral regulation of hosts feeds back to maintain low viral density (measured as infections per cell). Viral adaptation impacts host density but has a small effect on equilibrium viral density. More interesting are chemostats that supply the viral population with hosts from a virus-free refuge. Here, a type of evolutionary succession operates: adaptation at low viral density leads to higher density, but high density then favors competitive ability. Experiments support these models with both phenotypic and molecular data. Parallels to these designs exist in many natural systems, so these experimental systems may yield insights to the evolution and regulation of natural populations.

ID to above reference = 16542

8. Bull,J.J. (2006). Optimality models of phage life history and parallels in disease evolution. J. Theor. Biol. 241:928-938. Abstract: Optimality models constitute one of the simplest approaches to understanding phenotypic evolution. Yet they have shortcomings that are not easily evaluated in most organisms. Most importantly, the genetic basis of phenotype evolution is almost never understood, and phenotypic selection experiments are rarely possible. Both limitations can be overcome with bacteriophages. However, phages have such elementary life histories that few phenotypes seem appropriate for optimality approaches. Here we develop optimality models of two phage life history traits, lysis time and host range. The lysis time models show that the optimum is less sensitive to differences in host density than suggested by earlier analytical work. Host range evolution is approached from the perspective of whether the virus should avoid particular hosts, and the results match optimal foraging theory: there is an optimal ''diet'' in which host types are either strictly included or excluded, depending on their infection qualities. Experimental tests of both models are feasible, and phages provide concrete illustrations of many ways that optimality models can guide understanding and explanation. Phage genetic systems already support the perspective that lysis time and host range can evolve readily and evolve without greatly affecting other traits, one of the main tenets of optimality theory. The models can be extended to more general properties of infection, such as the evolution of virulence and tissue tropism.

ID to above reference = 16721

9. Capparelli,R., Ventimiglia,I., Roperto,S., Fenizia,D., Iannelli,D. (2006). Selection of an Escherichia coli O157:H7 bacteriophage for persistence in the circulatory system of mice infected experimentally. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 12:248-253. Abstract: A bacteriophage lytic for Escherichia coli O157:H7 was isolated from bovine manure. Following in-vivo selection, the phage acquired the capacity to persist in the circulatory system of mice for at least 38 days. When mice were infected experimentally with E. coli O157:H7 (10(7) CFU/mouse), simultaneous injection of the mice with phage (10(8) PFU/mouse) cleared E. coli O157:H7 from the mice within 48 h.

ID to above reference = 16382

10. Chen,Z., Schneider,T.D. (2006). Comparative analysis of tandem T7-like promoter containing regions in enterobacterial genomes reveals a novel group of genetic islands. Nucleic Acids Research 34:1133-1147. Abstract: Based on molecular information theory, 10 T7-like promoter models were built for the T7 group of phages and used to scan their host genomes and closely related genomes. 38 genomes were scanned and 12 clusters of tandem promoters were identified in nine enteropathogens. Comparative analysis of these tandem promoter-bearing regions reveals that they are similar to each other, forming prophage-like islands of 4-13 kb. Each island appears to contain two or three tandem T7-like promoters within a stretch of 150-620 bases, but there are no corresponding RNA polymerase (RNAP) genes. The promoters would transcribe two to five putative phage-related proteins, but none of these resemble known phage structural proteins. An integrase belonging to the Int family of site-specific recombinases is encoded upstream of the tandem promoters. A direct repeat of 17-24 bases was found on the ends of all 12 islands. Comparative analysis of the islands shows that these islands appear to have recombined with each other. These results suggest that the islands could encode a group of satellite phages. Activation and function of the islands may depend on transcription by a T7-like RNAP after infection by a T7-like phage or foreign DNA that encodes a T7-like RNAP.

ID to above reference = 16566

11. Clokie,M.R.J., Shan,J., Bailey,S., Jia,Y., Krisch,H.M., West,S., Mann,N.H. (2006). Transcription of a 'photosynthetic' T4-type phage during infection of a marine cyanobacterium. Environ. Microbiol. 8:827-835. Abstract: The transcription of S-PM2 phage following infection of Synechococcus sp. WH7803, a marine cyanobacterium, was analysed by quantitative real-time PCR. Unlike the distantly related coliphage T4, there were only two (early and late) instead of three (early, middle and late) classes of transcripts during the developmental cycle of the phage. This difference is consistent with the absence from the S-PM2 genome of T4-like middle mode promoter sequences and the transcription factors associated with their recognition. Phage S-PM2 carries the 'photosynthetic' genes psbA and psbD that encode homologues of the host photosystem II proteins D1 and D2. Transcripts of the phage psbA gene appeared soon after infection and remained at high levels until lysis. Throughout the course of infection, the photosynthetic capacity of the cells remained constant. A considerable transient increase in the abundance of the host psbA transcripts occurred shortly after infection, suggesting that the host responds to the trauma of phage infection in a similar way as it does to a variety of other environmental stresses. The very substantial transcription of the phage psbA gene during the latter phase of phage infection suggests that S-PM2 has acquired this cellular gene to ensure that D1 levels and thus photosynthesis are fully maintained until the infected cell finally lyses. Unexpectedly, transcripts of a phage-encoded S-layer protein gene were among the earliest and most abundant detected, suggesting that this partial homologue of a host protein plays an important role in the S-PM2 infection process.

ID to above reference = 16372

12. Curtin,J.J., Donlan,R.M. (2006). Using bacteriophages to reduce formation of catheter-associated biofilms by Staphylococcus epidermidis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50:1268-1275. Abstract: Use of indwelling catheters is often compromised as a result of biofilm formation. This study investigated if hydrogel-coated catheters pretreated with a coagulase-negative bacteriophage would reduce Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilm formation. Biofilms were developed on hydrogel-coated silicone catheters installed in a modified drip flow reactor. Catheter segments were pretreated with the lytic S. epidermidis bacteriophage 456 by exposing the catheter lumen to a 10-log-PFU/ml culture of the bacteriophage for 1 h at 37 degrees C prior to biofilm formation. The untreated mean biofilm cell count was 7.01+/-0.47 log CFU/cm2 of catheter. Bacteriophage treatment with and without supplemental divalent cations resulted in log-CFU/cm2 reductions of 4.47 (P<0.0001) and 2.34 (P=0.001), respectively. Divalent cation supplementation without bacteriophage treatment provided a 0.67-log-CFU/cm2 reduction (P=0.053). Treatment of hydrogel-coated silicone catheters with an S. epidermidis bacteriophage in an in vitro model system significantly reduced viable biofilm formation by S. epidermidis over a 24-h exposure period, suggesting the potential of bacteriophage for mitigating biofilm formation on indwelling catheters and reducing the incidence of catheter-related infections.

ID to above reference = 16362

13. Dabrowska,K., Switala-Jelen,K., Opolski,A., Gorski,A. (2006). Possible association between phages, Hoc protein, and the immune system. Arch. Virol. 151:209-215. Abstract: Mammals have become "an environment" for enterobacterial phage life cycles. Therefore it could be expected that bacteriophages adapt to them. This adaptation must comprise bacteriophage proteins. Gp Hoc seems to have significance neither for phage particle structure nor for phage antibacterial activity. It is evidently not necessary for the "typical" antibacterial actions of bacteriophages. But the rules of evolution make it improbable that gp Hoc really has no function, and non-essential genes of T4-type phages are probably important for phages' adaptation to their particular lifestyle. More interesting is the eukaryotic origin of gp Hoc: a resemblance to immunoglobulin-like proteins that reflects their evolutionary relation. Substantial differences in biological activity between T4 and a mutant that lacks gp Hoc were observed in a mammalian system. Hoc protein seems to be one of the molecules predicted to interact with mammalian organisms and/or modulate these interactions.

ID to above reference = 16402

14. Danelishvili,L., Young,L.S., Bermudez,L.E. (2006). In vivo efficacy of phage therapy for Mycobacterium avium infection as delivered by a nonvirulent mycobacterium. Microb. Drug Res. 12:1-6. Abstract: The emergence of mycobacteria resistant to currently available antimicrobial agents has become an important problem in modern medicine. Mycobacterium avium and M. tuberculosis are intracellular pathogens that replicate and survive within the mononuclear phagocytes. TM4 is a lytic mycobacteriophage that kills both extracellular M. avium and M. tuberculosis. When delivered by M. smegmatis transiently infected with TM4, it kills both M. avium and M. tuberculosis within RAW 264.7 macrophages. To evaluate the treatment of M. avium infection with phage in vivo, C57 BL/6 mice were infected with M. avium 109 and, 7 days later, treated either once or twice with TM4 phage (7.9 x 10(10) PFU/ml), M. smegmatis (4 x 10(8) cFU/ml), or M. smegmatis with TM4 phage delivered intravenously (i.v.). Treatment with TM4 phage alone or M. smegmatis without TM4 did not show a significant decrease in number of intracellular bacteria in the spleen compared with untreated control. In contrast, administration of M. smegmatis-TM4 resulted in a significant decrease in the number of M. avium in the spleen. However, 23% of bacteria recovered from treated mice were resistant to TM4. These in vivo studies confirmed the in vitro findings that an avirulent mycobacterium can be used as a carrier to deliver antimycobacterial phage intracellularly.

ID to above reference = 16493

15. de Paepe,M., Taddei,F. (2006). Viruses' life history: Towards a mechanistic basis of a trade-off between survival and reproduction among phages. PLoS Biol. 4:e193. Abstract: Life history theory accounts for variations in many traits involved in the reproduction and survival of living organisms, by determining the constraints leading to trade-offs among these different traits. The main life history traits of phages—viruses that infect bacteria—are the multiplication rate in the host, the survivorship of virions in the external environment, and their mode of transmission. By comparing life history traits of 16 phages infecting the bacteria Escherichia coli, we show that their mortality rate is constant with time and negatively correlated to their multiplication rate in the bacterial host. Even though these viruses do not age, this result is in line with the trade-off between survival and reproduction previously observed in numerous aging organisms. Furthermore, a multiple regression shows that the combined effects of two physical parameters, namely, the capsid thickness and the density of the packaged genome, account for 82% of the variation in the mortality rate. The correlations between life history traits and physical characteristics of virions may provide a mechanistic explanation of this trade-off. The fact that this trade-off is present in this very simple biological situation suggests that it might be a fundamental property of evolving entities produced under constraints. Moreover, such a positive correlation between mortality and multiplication reveals an underexplored trade-off in host–parasite interactions.

ID to above reference = 16492

16. Dennehy,J.J., Friedenberg,N.A., Yang,Y.W., Turner,P.E. (2006). Bacteriophage migration via nematode vectors: host-parasite-consumer interactions in laboratory microcosms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72:1974-1979. Abstract: Pathogens vectored by nematodes pose serious agricultural, economic, and health threats; however, little is known of the ecological and evolutionary aspects of pathogen transmission by nematodes. Here we describe a novel model system with two trophic levels, bacteriophages and nematodes, each of which competes for bacteria. We demonstrate for the first time that nematodes are capable of transmitting phages between spatially distinct patches of bacteria. This model system has considerable advantages, including the ease of maintenance and manipulation at the laboratory bench, the ability to observe many generations in short periods, and the capacity to freeze evolved strains for later comparison to their ancestors. More generally, experimental studies of complex multispecies interactions, host-pathogen coevolution, disease dynamics, and the evolution of virulence may benefit from this model system because current models (e.g., chickens, mosquitoes, and malaria parasites) are costly to maintain, are difficult to manipulate, and require considerable space. Our initial explorations centered on independently assessing the impacts of nematode, bacterium, and phage population densities on virus migration between host patches. Our results indicated that virus transmission increases with worm density and host bacterial abundance; however, transmission decreases with initial phage abundance, perhaps because viruses eliminate available hosts before migration can occur. We discuss the microbial growth dynamics that underlie these results, suggest mechanistic explanations for nematode transmission of phages, and propose intriguing possibilities for future research.

ID to above reference = 16366

17. Duffy,S., Turner,P.E., Burch,C.L. (2006). Pleiotropic costs of niche expansion in the RNA bacteriophage f6. Genetics 172:751-757. Abstract: Natural and experimental systems have failed to universally demonstrate a trade-off between generalism and specialism. When a trade-off does occur it is difficult to attribute its cause to antagonistic pleiotropy without dissecting the genetic basis of adaptation, and few previous experiments provide these genetic data. Here we investigate the evolution of expanded host range (generalism) in the RNA virus f6, an experimental model system allowing adaptive mutations to be readily identified. We isolated 10 spontaneous host range mutants on each of three novel Pseudomonas hosts and determined whether these mutations imposed fitness costs on the standard laboratory host. Sequencing revealed that each mutant had one of nine nonsynonymous mutations in the f6 gene P3, important in host attachment. Seven of these nine mutations were costly on the original host, confirming the existence of antagonistic pleiotropy. In addition to this genetically imposed cost, we identified an epigenetic cost of generalism that occurs when phage transition between host types. Our results confirm the existence in f6 of two costs of generalism, genetic and environmental, but they also indicate that the cost is not always large. The possibility for cost-free niche expansion implies that varied ecological conditions may favor host shifts in RNA viruses.

ID to above reference = 16352

18. Forterre,P. (2006). The origin of viruses and their possible roles in major evolutionary transitions. Virus Res. 117:5-16. Abstract: Viruses infecting cells from the three domains of life, Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya, share homologous features, suggesting that viruses originated very early in the evolution of life. The three current hypotheses for virus origin, e.g. the virus first, the escape and the reduction hypotheses are revisited in this new framework. Theoretical considerations suggest that RNA viruses may have originated in the nucleoprotein world by escape or reduction from RNA-cells, whereas DNA viruses (at least some of them) might have evolved directly from RNA viruses. The antiquity of viruses can explain why most viral proteins have no cellular homologues or only distantly related ones. Viral proteins have replaced the ancestral bacterial RNA/DNA polymerases and primase during mitochondrial evolution. It has been suggested that replacement of cellular proteins by viral ones also occurred in early evolution of the DNA replication apparatus and/or that some DNA replication proteins originated directly in the virosphere and were later on transferred to cellular organisms. According to these new hypotheses, viruses played a critical role in major evolutionary transitions, such as the invention of DNA and DNA replication mechanisms, the formation of the three domains of life, or else, the origin of the eukaryotic nucleus.

ID to above reference = 16291

19. Fouts,D.E., Rasko,D.A., Cer,R.Z., Jiang,L., Fedorova,N.B., Shvartsbeyn,A., Vamathevan,J.J., Tallon,L., Althoff,R., Arbogast,T.S., Fadrosh,D.W., Read,T.D., Gill,S.R. (2006). Sequencing Bacillus anthracis typing phages gamma and cherry reveals a common ancestry. J. Bacteriol. 188:3402-3408. Abstract: The genetic relatedness of the Bacillus anthracis typing phages Gamma and Cherry was determined by nucleotide sequencing and comparative analysis. The genomes of these two phages were identical except at three variable loci, which showed heterogeneity within individual lysates and among Cherry, Wbeta, Fah, and four Gamma bacteriophage sequences.

ID to above reference = 16360

20. Gorski,A., Kniotek,M., Perkowska-Ptasinska,A., Mroz,A., Przerwa,A., Gorczyca,W. , Dabrowska,K., Weber-Dabrowska,B., Nowaczyk,M. (2006). Bacteriophages and transplantation tolerance. Transplant. Proc. 38:331-333. Abstract: Our recent findings suggest that bacteriophages (phages) may not only eliminate bacteria, but also modulate immune functions. In this communication, we demonstrate that phages may strongly inhibit human T-cell activation and proliferation as well as activation of the nuclear transcription factor NF-kappaB in response to a viral pathogen. Phage administration in vivo can diminish cellular infiltration of allogeneic skin allografts. Thus, phage treatment should be considered in antibiotic-resistant posttransplantation infections. Furthermore, phages could find a broader application in clinical transplantation.

ID to above reference = 16383

21. Häusler,T. (2006). Viruses vs. Superbugs: A Solution to the Antibiotic Crisis. Macmillan, ID to above reference = 16273

22. Jensen,M.A., Faruque,S.M., Mekalanos,J.J., Levin,B.R. (2006). Modeling the role of bacteriophage in the control of cholera outbreaks. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103:4652-4657. Abstract: Cholera is a waterborne diarrheal disea

Contents

Introduction to phage ecology

Vastness of phage ecology

Studying phage ecology

Phage "organismal" ecology

Historical overview

Methods

Phage population ecology

Phage community ecology

Phage ecosystem ecology

External links

Further reading

General Reviews

Books

Phage "organismal" ecology (suggested reading)

Phage "organismal" experimental protocols (suggested reading)

Phage population ecology (suggested reading)

Phage community ecology (suggested reading)

Phage ecosystem ecology (suggested reading)

Terrestrial phage ecology (suggested reading)

Aquatic phage ecology (suggested reading)

Other environments (suggested reading)

Notes

Contents

History of list

Editing list

List of phage monographs (descending date order)

Books published in the 2000s

Books published in the 1990s

Books published in the 1980s

Books published in the 1970s

Books published in the 1960s

Books published in the 1950s

Books published in the 1940s

Books published in the 1930s

Books published in the 1920s

Contents

Instructions and history

Experimental studies, by category

Laboratory phylogenetics

Epistasis

Experimental adaptation

…to usual hosts

…to new or modified hosts

…to modified conditions

…to high temperatures

…as compensation for deleterious mutations

…as toward change in phage virulence

Impact of sex/coinfection

Muller’s ratchet

Prisoner’s Dilemma

Coevolution

Historical considerations

Notes

Contents

External links

Cyanophage publications

Publications (2000s)

2006

2005

2004