Table of Contents
• What kinds of jobs are available to psychology majors with bachelors degrees?
• Job titles in human services for students with a bachelors degree in psychology
• Answers to the question, "What can I do with a bachelors degree in psychology?"
• What are the qualities necessary to obtain these jobs?
• Categories of job skills valued by employers who interview psychology majors
• Job skills possessed by psychology majors
• The skillful psychology major: The British perspective
• Putting your undergraduate skills to work
• Advice to job-seeking psychology majors from successfully employed alumni
• Do you prepare for graduate school and a job in the same way?
• A strategy to obtain strong letters of recommendation for jobs
• What are some careers I could pursue if I went to graduate school?
"What can I do with a bachelors degree in psychology?" This is a question that often concerns psychology majors who plan to enter the job market immediately after graduation. Zeller (1988) attempted to answer the question by compiling the following list of human services job titles whose descriptions and qualifications are compatible with the knowledge and skills of a college graduate with a bachelors degree in psychology. Although it took Zeller a whole year to compile his list from a wide variety of sources, it should be noted that there are also many other human services jobs for psychology majors that are not on this list.
activity director * addiction counselor * administrative program assistant * admissions market analyst * admissions public relations director * admissions recruiter * admissions representative * adolescent care technician * adolescent chemical dependency counselor * advertising trainee * adviser- educator * affirmative action officer * agency representative * airline reservations clerk * alcohol counselor * alcoholism unit manager * area administrator * arena and sports facility instructor * assistant residence manager * assistant youth coordinator * association manager * behavior analyst * camp staff director caretaker * case tracking specialist * case worker * center supervisor * chemical dependency advocate* chemical dependency coordinator * chemical dependency counselor * chemical dependency secretary * chemical dependency technician * child care counselor * child care worker * child development worker * child protection worker * circulation manager * collection assistant * collector college admissions representative * community activist * community correctional service worker * community outreach coordinator * community organizer * community service coordinator * community worker * compliance officer * consultant,* cottage treatment team * counselor* counselor aid * counselor/therapist * county personnel officer * crime prevention coordinator * customer relations * customer service trainee * daily living aid * day-care aid * demonstration coordinator * deputy juvenile probation officer * developmental reading instructor * development officer * director of activity and recreation * director of alumni relations * director of day-care center * director of displaced homemakers e director of human services * director of education * director of planned parenthood * director of planning director of security * director of youth service bureau * driving instructor * drug counselor * early childhood specialist * education prevention specialist * education daytime coordinator * educational coordinator * educational representative * educational salesperson * educational textbook representative * employee assistance program specialist * employment counselor * employment representative * executive director * export order coordinator * field representative * foster home parent * grants coordinator * group home coordinator * group home counselor * group home parents * group leader * group worker * head of alumni affairs * head of fund raising * host/hostess * houseparent * human relations director• human services technician * infant stimulation teacher * information specialist * information referral specialist * inservice director * instructor * instructor - handicapped adult program * insurance agent * interviewer e investigator * juvenile justice planner * juvenile prevention program coordinator * juvenile specialist * living unit assistant * loading dock superintendent * management trainee * marketing manager * mental retardation professional * mental retardation unit manager * neighborhood outreach worker * occupational information developer * park and recreation director * patient service representative * personnel analyst * personnel coordinator * personnel generalist * planner-assistant * planner-evaluator * private school representative * private tutor * probation officer * program consultant * program coordinator * program director * project learning instructor * police training coordinator * public information officer * rehabilitation aid * relief houseparent * research analyst/planner * research assistant * research trainee * residence counselor * resident aid * resident caretaker * residential assistant * residential director * residential service coordinator * residential supervisor * resource developer * retail manager * salesperson * secretary * security officer * service advisor * social service director * social services supervisor * social studies teacher * social worker * social worker coordinator * statistical assistant * student activities adviser * supervisor * support service manager * task force coordinator * temporary admissions clerk * textbook coordinator * trainer * trainer-coordinator * veteran's adviser * volunteer coordinator * work activity program director * youth worker *
| A R E A S | E M P L O Y E R S | S T R A T E G I E S |
HUMAN SERVICES Counseling, Advocacy, Human Health Services |
• Federal Government depts of Health & Human Services, Veterans' Administration, and Justice • State Govt depts of Human Services, Mental Health. and Mental Retardation, psychiatric hospitals, community mental health centers, facilities for the mentally retarded, and probation/parole depts • Local Government: senior citizens' centers • Non-Profit Organizations such as United Way, Goodwill Industries, Boys and Girls Clubs, and YWCA/YMCA |
• Obtain essential practical experience such as residence hall adviser or camp counselor • Enroll in an internship or practicum • Perform volunteer services such as Special Olympics, Big Brother/Sister, or crisis hotline • Learn foreign language for multi-cultural clients • Become familiar with government hiring procedures • Be willing to relocate • Be prepared to obtain a masters degree for more substantive counseling work |
| ADMINISTRATION | • Federal, state, and local governments • National headquarters and local branches of nonprofit organizations |
• Consider a business double major or minor • Gain experience in counseling, advocacy, or administration • Need masters in health care administration for advancement |
| COMMUNITY RELATIONS | • Federal, state, or local government • Local branches of national non-profit organizations |
• Gain experience in counseling, advocacy, or administration • Gain knowledge of community problems and govt resources |
| PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT | • Federal, state, or local government • Headquarters and branches of non- profit organizations |
• Gain experience in counseling, advocacy, or administration • Obtain graduate degree for advancement |
| RESEARCH | • Federal government, especially Dept of Health & Human Services and National Institute of Education • National headquarters of non-profit organizations |
• Develop strong quantitative, statistical, and research skills • Obtain graduate degree for advancement |
HUMAN RESOURCES Employment & Recruitment, Labor Relations, Compensation & Benefits |
• Human resources (personnel) departments of companies • Government personnel agencies and departments • Employment agencies |
• Acquire related experiences such as a residence hall adviser, new student orientation leader, admissions office tour guide/recruiter, or member of committees that make policy, settle disputes, or adjudicate cases |
PUBLIC RELATIONS Research, Programming, Fund- Raising, Writing & Editing, Special Events, Media Placement, Public Speaking |
•Public relations and advertising firms • Companies with in-house PR depts • Trade associations • Federal, state, and local government • Colleges and universities • Non-profit organizations |
• Develop strong writing and speaking skills • Obtain related experiences with campus newspaper, TV, or radio, Admissions office tour guide or recruiter, Student activities office planning • Serve as a fund raiser or political canvasser • Find internship through Public Relations Society of America |
ADVERTISING Creative, Media, Account Services, or Research |
• Advertising agencies • Companies with in-house advertising agencies or depts |
• Obtain experience with campus TV, radio, or newspaper • Work with a student-run business • Find an internship with a market research firm or a member of the American Advertising Federation • Develop a portfolio for a creative position * Business minor or double major for Account Services jobs |
| MARKET RESEARCH | • Market research firms • Market research depts of consumer goods manufacturing firms |
• Develop strong math/statistics skills • Become involved in the American Marketing Association • Obtain a part-time or summer job with a market research firm (see Marketing Services in the yellow pages), perform a Business Dept practicum, become a reporter for campus newspaper, serve as a canvasser/phone interviewer for a charity or political campaign |
| TEACHING | • Public and private schools | • Obtain a teaching certificate for public school positions • Seek guidance from the Education Dept in your school • Volunteer as a tutor |
| RETAIL and SALES | • All major retail firms including pharmaceuticals, specialty, variety, and department store chains • Wholesalers, manufacturers, insurance companies. and real estate companies |
• Obtain related sales experiences with part-time or summer retail job or work with campus newspaper or yearbook • Secure leadership position in campus organization • Perform an internship with a retail store |
This is a modified version of a document entitled Psychology: What can I do with this degree? available from the University of Tennessee Career Services Office.
What are the qualities necessary to obtain these jobs?
ABILITIES, SKILLS, AND QUALITIES NEEDED BY THE WORKER OF THE YEAR 2000
A. FUNDAMENTAL ABILITIES
1. The Ability to Utilize Resources
a. scheduling time
b. budgeting funds
c. assigning space
d. managing staff
2. The Ability to Work Effectively with Others
a. working in a team
b. teaching others new skills
c. serving clients and customers
d. exercising leadership
e. negotiating
f dealing with diversity
3. The Ability to Acquire and Use Information
a. acquiring, evaluating, organizing, maintaining, interpreting, and evaluating information
b. using computers to process information
4. The Ability to Operate Effectively Within Organizations
a. understanding how social, organizational, and technological systems operate
b. operating effectively within systems
c. monitoring, evaluating, and correcting performance
d. improving or designing systems
5. The Ability to Utilize Technology to Solve Problems
a. being familiar with a variety of technologies
b. selecting, applying, and maintaining technologies
B. SKILLS AND QUALITIES THAT PROVIDE A FOUNDATION FOR THE FUNDAMENTAL ABILITIES
1. Communication and Computational Skills
a. reading and comprehending complex materials
b. writing clearly and convincingly
c. listening carefully and accurately
d. speaking articulately and persuasively
e. performing mathematical operations
2. Thinking Skills
a. creating
b. decision making
c. problem solving
d. learning, reasoning, and organizing
e. understanding symbols, tables, and graphs
3. Personal Qualities
a. acting responsibly
b. possessing high self-esteem
c. exhibiting appropriate social skills
d. demonstrating self-management
e. displaying integrity
Reference: United States Department of Labor, The Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, What Work Requires of Schools- A SCANS Report for America 2000 (Washington, D.C.), 1991.
What skills are employers looking for when they interview psychology majors? To answer this question, a questionnaire was sent to 39 employers who send recruiters who are willing to interview psychology majors. The 14 employers who returned the questionnaire rated the importance of the following skills in their hiring decisions on a 5-point scale (5 = extremely important, 1 = unimportant). The results are displayed below with the skills organized according to categories, the number to the right of each category reflecting the average rating of the skills in that category, and the number to the left of each skill representing its average rating.
Social Skills - 4.65
4.8 - Deals effectively with a wide variety of people
4.8 - Displays appropriate interpersonal skills
4.6 - Handles conflict successfully
4.4 - Works productively as a member of a team
Personal Skills - 4.35
4.7 - Shows initiative and persistence
4.6 - Exhibits effective time management
4.6 - Holds high ethical standards and expects the same of others
4.2 - Remains open- minded during controversies
4.2 - Identifies and actualizes personal potential
3.8 - Adapts easily to organizational rules and procedures
Communication Skills - 4.28
4.8 - Listens carefully and accurately
4.5 - Speaks articulately and persuasively
4.1 - Writes clearly and precisely
3.7 - Comprehends and retains key points from written material
Information Gathering/Processing Skills - 3.97
4.3 - Plans and carries out projects successfully
4.2 - Thinks logically and creatively
3.4 - Gathers and organizes information from multiple sources
Numerical/Computer/Psychometric Skills - 2.17
2.9 - Displays computer literacy
2.1 - Performs and interprets descriptive and inferential statistics
1.5 - Selects, administers, and interprets psychological tests
These data indicate that employers do not rate all categories of skills as equally important (e.g., they appear much more interested in the social, personal, and communication skills of potential employees than in their ability to perform numerical, computer, or psychometric operations). Psychology majors should use this information in two ways. First, they should take every opportunity to develop and strengthen these crucial skills while they are in college. Second, they should do all they can to insure they can demonstrate or prove the existence of these skills during an interview. Many frequently asked interview questions are designed to uncover the presence or absence of these skills (e.g., Tell me about yourself; expand on your resume. What was your greatest accomplishment? Tell me about your extracurricular activities and what you learned from them. What was your most stressful experience and how did you handle it? How have you worked successfully with people who are different from you.) Be prepared to give impressive answers to these questions!
Although the majority of these employers indicated satisfaction with the performance of the recent college graduates they had hired, several also provided the following negative characteristics of their recent hires:
• poor work ethic (e.g., lacking motivation or complaining about having to work hard to obtain what they want)
• too dependent on "book" knowledge
• believe they are overqualified for their jobs
• appear to be looking to their next job rather than attempting to master their current one
Psychology majors who are seeking employment should remember these undesirable qualities so that they can be sure to avoid communicating even a hint of them, either during an interview or after they are employed.
"When people consider the question, ‘What am I able to do with a bachelors degree in psychology,' they are usually thinking about what kind of job they might get. But there is another way of looking at this question that you should consider as part of your career planning. That is, you should seriously think about what in fact you are able to do in terms of the you may have acquired while majoring in psychology" (Edwards, 1989, p. 1).
Human Services Skills: These are skills necessary for successful employment in situations where direct services are provided to individuals who are in need of help.
• Perform institutional research and evaluation.
• Write reports and proposals clearly and objectively.
• Organize and lead groups, organizations, or committees.
• Recognize and understand behavioral and emotional disorders.
• Select, administer, score, and interpret psychological tests.
• Respond in an unbiased and tolerant way to individual differences.
•Display fundamental counseling skills with individuals and groups.
•Collect, record, and report statistical and qualitative information.
• Perform crisis intervention techniques (e.g., listening and referral).
• Perform interviews to learn about people's history, problems, and plans.
• Contribute to program or treatment planning, evaluation, and implementation.
• Demonstrate small group skills (e.g., team building and conflict management).
• Communicate effectively and sensitively in both individual and group situations.
• Obtain information about problems through library research and personal contacts.
• Critically evaluate theories and research and apply the results to solve problems.
• Analyze problems on the basis of personal experience and psychological principles.
• Understand and modify your attitudes and actions in interactions with other people.
Research Skills: These are some of the types of skills essential to jobs in which information based on basic or applied research is provided to assist decision making.
• Construct and administer questionnaires.
• Use a variety of types of research equipment.
• Collect, organize, analyze, and interpret data.
• Present verbal presentations clearly and persuasively.
• Defend ideas in a clear, objective, nondogmatic manner.
• Be familiar with a variety of research methods and designs.
• Recruit research subjects and treat them in an ethical manner.
• Select, administer, score, and interpret various psychological tests.
• Write reports clearly, concisely, objectively, and in the correct style.
• Use library resources to research problems and prepare literature reviews.
• Identify problems and suggest solutions on the basis of research findings.
• Create easily understood graphs, tables, and verbal descriptions of results.
• Select and compute appropriate statistical tests and interpret their results.
• Assemble, interpret. and critically analyze research findings in specific areas.
• Use computers to write reports, analyze data, and perform bibliographic searches.
• Deal effectively with financial, temporal, and personnel constraints on research.
Students should realize they may not develop these skills if they do not take full advantage of all their undergraduate opportunities (e.g., research and extracurricular activities). It is also equally important to obtain a broad, liberal education in addition to these specific skills. Because job markets are shifting constantly, it is crucial to avoid overspecialization and to strive for flexibility.
Many psychology graduates fail to do Justice to themselves on application forms and in interviews because they freeze up when they come to the dreaded question of "What do you have to offer us?" They tend to have difficult verbalizing the skills they have acquired, and also fail to recognize that graduates from other disciplines may not have acquired these skills. Psychology does not merely equip students for the. psychological professions; it also provides a very sound background for many other careers. Listed below are some of the skills which ty i I p ca psychology majors will have acquired during their undergraduate education. None of these skills is unique to psychology, but not many disciplines can offer such a comprehensive list. How often, for instance, do you find college graduates who are simultaneously literate. numerate, computer- Iiterate, and good problem solvers?
LITERACY: The ability to write both succinct reports and more lengthy analyses. Psychology graduates are accustomed to writing essays and papers, which allow them to explore issues in detail, but they also become familiar with the techniques of concise writing within a pre-set format, as they write up their practical reports. The ability to produce a concise report is often cited by managers as a skill they would like their management trainees to have.
NUMERACY: 'The ability to handle and interpret statistical information. Few jobs require mathematical whiz-kids, but psychology graduates are good at drawing the implications out of data summaries and probability statements.
COMPUTER LITERACY: The ability to use a computer package, whether word processing or statistics, and the ability to learn to use new ones. The ability to program is rarely required and most organizations accept that their own systems are likely to be new. But most psychology graduates are familiar with the basic use of computer packages by the time they graduate.
INTERPERSONAL AWARENESS: Knowledge of the mechanisms of social communication and the potential sources of interpersonal conflict. This is not the same as being socially skilled oneself (although it contributes). but does make a difference in understanding and dealing with interpersonal problems when they arise in the workplace. And most psychology graduates are familiar with this type of knowledge.
ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS: Knowing how environments, organizations. etc., can directly influence people's understanding and behavior. Very few psychology graduates are unaware of the importance of environment, and yet many non-psychologists do not notice environmental factors.
PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS: The ability to identify different strategies and approaches to solving problems. This may be on a macro-level, in applying totally different perspectives or levels of analysis to the problem, or at a more basic level in terms of choosing appropriate methods to deal with it. It is a valuable skill in the organizational world, and one which psychology graduates are strikingly good at. They are trained from the very first lab class.
INFORMATION-FINDING SKILLS: Knowing how to go about looking for information on a particular topic or general area. Not a skill needed for every job, but useful in many of them nonetheless.
CRITICAL EVALUATION: The ability to appraise information and situations realistically, and to anticipate problems or difficulties. This is an essential skill for a manager or management trainee, and is one in which psychology graduates are directly trained.
RESEARCH SKILLS: Knowing how to go about gathering systematic information about human experience or behavior. We train students in a number of different methods - at the least, observational, experimental and case study techniques. Such awareness of methodology is useful to any number of different professions, some obvious ones being marketing and health education.
MEASUREMENT SKILLS: Knowing how to go about designing questionnaires and developing other measurement tools. Psychology graduates acquire these skills again normally as part of their methodology course. But they are not easy skills to acquire and not many graduates understand the underlying principles of them as thoroughly as does a typical psychology graduate.
PERSPECTIVES: The ability to look at issues from several different points of view. Although this is a skill in which psychology graduates are directly trained, they often do not realize that they have acquired it. But it is a valuable one for an employer.
HIGHER-ORDER ANALYSIS: The ability to extract general principles from immediate or concrete situations. Psychology graduates tend to be better than most people at spotting recurrent patterns or similarities between situations, and at looking at issues in terms of their underlying principles rather than becoming bogged down with the details of the immediate situation.
PRAGMATISM: The ability to make the best of a non-ideal situation, and to get on with working within pre-set constraints. lt. does not take much exposure to psychological methodology for psychology students to realize that the perfect experiment is going to be elusive and they will simply have to get on with doing it as well as possible anyway! As graduates. this gives them a strongly practical element which is valuable in many forms of work.
Students often overlook the relevance of their undergraduate education to the world of work. While the primary purpose of college is to provide students with a well-rounded education- rather than training them for one specific job-many of the skills developed in the classroom have direct bearing on success in the workplace. Throughout their years in college, students are required to develop and refine their writing, speaking, and research skills. These skills are fundamental to career success. Part of what distinguishes a liberal arts education is its breadth of exposure to different disciplines. Students must learn to write and speak clearly about and conduct scholarly research on topics outside their majors. The ability to adapt to different environments, to understand viewpoints different from their own, and to comprehend unfamiliar information is important in many careers and essential to job advancement (e.g., promotions and raises). Another advantage of a liberal arts education is that, because classes are small, students are often assigned projects requiring them to develop and improve their writing, speaking, and research skills. Your peers at larger institutions seldom have the opportunity to give in-class presentations or to receive comments about the style and content of their writing assignments. Smaller classes allow students to take essay exams- not just computer-scored tests that develop their ability to formulate arguments and support them with evidence. Students often underestimate the value of their education and their opportunities to develop job-related skills and, because of this, they are also often unable to sell their skills to potential employers. To become aware of the skills you are developing, reflect on the assignments you have completed in your classes and use the following lists to compare what you are acquiring with what will be expected of you in your future job.
WRITING SKILLS
In College - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - On the Job
• term papers and essay tests • writing reports, briefs, and proposals
• laboratory reports, • composing letters and memos
• peer reviewing • editing and proofreading
• notebooks and journals • keeping clear and accurate records
• creative writing • preparing copy for sales, advertising, and publications
SPEAKING SKILLS
In College - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - On the Job
• speeches and presentations • interviewing, supervising, and counseling
• study groups • persuading, negotiating, and selling
• discussions and debates • making presentations to peers and clients
• group projects • surveying and soliciting funds and support
• answering questions in class • working with the public and answering their questions
RESEARCH SKILLS
In College - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - On the Job
• library and laboratory research • planning and decision making
• independent studies • developing ideas and brainstorming
• co-op or internship projects • designing and conducting research
• literature reviews • gathering, analyzing, and interpreting data
• case studies • developing programs and market plans
These are only a few of the skills developed in the classroom that have direct on the job application. College also provides numerous extracurricular opportunities for students to develop other career- related skills (e.g., leadership and problem-solving). Students should use the following three-part strategy to prepare them for success in today's increasingly competitive job market.
• Become aware of the skills you will need to obtain and succeed in the job to which you aspire.
• Take full advantage of the opportunities that college provides to enable you to develop these skills.
• Make prospective employers aware of your skills (e.g., learn how to write an effective resume and develop persuasive interviewing skills).
(This is a modified version of an article entitled "Liberal Arts Skills at Work" that appeared in the November, 1994 issue of Career Currents, the career planning and placement newsletter of Hanover College.)
• Don't wait until you area senior to think about what you will put on your resume. Start this process when you area freshman.
• Do things that will make it easy for people to write good letters of recommendation for you in the future.
• Don't be a loner. Develop a network of people who can help you to learn about and obtain the job you want.
• Try to personalize your education to fit your specific career goals.
• Develop specific career goals as early in your education as possible and then do everything you can to achieve these goals.
• Do some volunteer work or participate in a practicum, internship, or Co-op program to gain experience and to make contacts.
• Develop interpersonal skills. If you are shy, do everything you can to overcome your shyness.
• Develop computer and statistical skills.
• Don’t just learn things to pass tests. Learn things so that you can apply the knowledge that you learn in the job you want to obtain.
• Learn to become an articulate and persuasive writer and speaker.
• Get involved in extracurricular activities and assume leadership roles in these activities.
• Learn how to deal with stress and how to manage your time.
• Demonstrate to people that you are enthusiastic and motivated by actively seeking opportunities to become involved in activities that will broaden your experience and increase your network of people who can help you to increase your future career possibilities.
• Don't expect a good job to fall into your lap after graduation. Good jobs are a result of hard work, persistence, and planning.
• Realize that the world is full of people who are very different from you, and that you must learn to deal successfully with different kinds of people if you are to be successful.
• Become familiar with the Career Services Office when you are a freshman, and continue to use its services throughout your college career.
• Don't choose electives just because they are easy or offered at a convenient time. Choose electives that will increase your strengths and strengthen your weaknesses.
• Find out what skills. knowledge, and personal characteristics you must have to obtain and succeed in the job you want, and then take advantage of your college opportunities to develop them.
The two most common options available to college graduates are finding a job or going to graduate school. Therefore, a question they often ask their academic advisers is: "How do I get into graduate school?" or "How do I get a job?" These questions should be addressed early in an undergraduate's college career because the answers are often very unpleasant if the student has not engaged in appropriate career- planning activities during the freshman n and sophomore years and carried through on these plans as a junior and senior. The first step in this process involves the student's decision to pursue (1) a career that requires a graduate degree or (2) a job in a field for which graduate education is unnecessary. The second step is to determine the set of factors that will increase the probability of success in that career plan. The third step is to maximize these factors. To assist academic advisers in their attempt to help students answer these questions and maximize their chances of post-graduate success, Milton, Pollio, & Eison (1986) performed a survey of "362 representatives of business and industry who were actively involved in interviewing and hiring college graduates" and 500 college faculty from the areas of natural science, social science, the humanities, and pre-professional programs. The task of the members of these samples was to rate the importance of each of the factors in the following 15 item lists on a I to 7 scale depending upon "the value or degree of importance they placed on each of the 15 possible pieces of information when reviewing the materials submitted by recent college graduates for either employment in their firm or for admission to graduate school." The two following lists are arranged in descending order of these ratings.
Business Representatives College Faculty
| 1. Personality of student | 1. Grades in major courses |
| 2. Grades in major courses | 2. Number of difficult courses |
| 3. Nature of noncollege jobs | 3. Samples of student writing |
| 4. Overall grade point average | 4. Letters of recommendation |
| 5. Breadth of courses taken | 5. Publications, honors, awards |
| 6. School/Recommended reputation | 6. Breadth of courses taken |
| 7. Breadth of life experiences | 7. School/Recommended reputation |
| 8. Extracurricular activities | 8. Standardized test scores |
| 9. Publications, awards, honors | 9. Overall grade point average |
| 1*. Number of difficult courses | 1*. Breadth of life experiences |
| I . Samples of student writing | 11. Personality of student |
| 12. Affirmative action needs | 12. Contributions to the school |
| 13. Contributions to the school | 13. Extracurricular activities |
| 14. Letters of recommendation | 14. Nature of noncollege jobs |
| 15. Standardized test scores | 15. Affirmative action needs |
It appears from these lists that employers and graduate schools put emphasis on very different factors when they weigh the qualifications of newly graduated college students. A quick check of the top five factors indicates that employers appear to be most impressed with job applicants who possess a good personality, earn high grades in both their majors and a wide variety of other courses, and have relevant employment experience outside the college environment. Graduate schools are most impressed with undergraduates who earn high grades in their majors, take difficult courses, are good writers, earn high recommendations, and have publications, honors, or awards to their credit. Undergraduates should study these lists very carefully during the early stages of their college careers when they are engaged in initial career-planning activities. Their willingness and ability to successfully attain these factors will have a profound effect upon their chances of post-graduate success.
Information That Will Help Me Write You a Strong Letter of Recommendation for a Job
Your Name:
Classes you took from me and the grades you received:
A recent survey of employers who are willing to interview psychology majors indicates that the following skills and characteristics (listed in order of their rated importance) are the most important in their hiring decisions. One of the most successful ways in which you can convince a potential employer that you possess these skills and characteristics is if the people who write your letters of recommendation describe you as a person who possesses them. Please provide me with a example of something that you have done during your college career that would allow me to say that you possess these skills and characteristics and will also allow me to support, my statement. For example, if you would like me to say that you have "shown initiative and persistence, you may want to describe how you proposed a new activity for the Psychology Club, wrote a proposal to obtain funding from student government, coordinated that activity with the psychology faculty, and successfully carried out the new activity. It is not necessary for you to fill in all the blanks; no one possesses all these skills and characteristics in equal strength. Give this task some careful thought. Your time will be well spent, I will appreciate your effort and, as a result, I will be able to write you a stronger letter of recommendation.
Deals effectively with a wide variety of people
Displays appropriate interpersonal skills
Listens carefully and accurately
Shows initiative and persistence
Exhibits effective time management
Holds high ethical standards and expects the same of others
Handles conflict successfully
Speaks articulately and persuasively
Works productively as a member of a team
Plans and carries out projects successfully
Thinks logically and creatively
Remains open-minded during controversies
Identifies and actualizes personal potential
Writes clearly and precisely
Adapts easily to organizational rules and procedures
Comprehends and retains key points from written materials
Gathers and organizes information from multiple sources
A career in "psychology" encompasses a wide range of activities. The most popular notion of the "psychologist" is that of the Ph.D. in private practice or working in mental hospitals. However, this is only one of many available careers, which include college and university (and, more recently, high school) teaching, research, and management consultation, to name a few. To help you learn about the different fields of psychology and the advanced degrees needed in these fields, we have summarized some of the major specialties in psychology on the following pages. As you consider career specialties in psychology and the advanced training required, you need to make two important decisions before applying to graduate school: (1) what specialization (e.g., social, physiological, counseling) in psychology interests you, and (2) what degree do you wish to earn (i.e., master's-level or doctoral-level). Each of these decisions will significantly influence your choice of graduate schools.
Unlike undergraduate education, in which you choose your major after attending for a year or two, applicants to graduate schools usually have to indicate in advance their particular specialization within psychology (e.g., developmental, clinical, or social psychology). However, since the first year of graduate training is typically very broad, some students transfer from one area to another. This may be easier to do in some schools than in others. Please note that it may be very difficult to transfer to a clinical program from any of the other programs. Competition for openings in clinical psychology is probably more intense than it is for entrance to medical school. You should investigate transfer possibilities ahead of time.
If you find that you are still uncertain as to which specialization in psychology most interests you by the end of your undergraduate education, don't despair. There are a number of master's programs in "General Psychology" which provide training useful to further explore your interests and decide upon a specialization' A master's in general psychology can be an excellent stepping stone for applying to a Ph.D. program in a specialization.
Finally, many excellent students never consider going to graduate school because they don't believe they can afford the costs. Don 't let the financial considerations deter your dream. Many graduate programs provide fellowships, traineeships, and assistantships (i.e., scholarships for graduate school) which often pay tuition plus provide a small salary to cover living expenses. The finances of graduate education are very different from those of your undergraduate degree. In many cases, you might actually have to pay very little of the cost of your education. Investigate these options as well when comparing graduate programs.
Careers in Psychology with Masters and Doctoral Degrees
Psychologists are found in a wide variety of employment settings. Any type of psychologist may teach at a community college, a four-year college, or a university. Many who teach also conduct research. Some others are employed as researchers by the government or private industry. Still others are employed as service providers and administrators in schools, prisons, and mental health clinics and hospitals. Finally, some psychologists use their expertise as consultants for a variety of different organizations.
Some common types of psychologists, their activities, and the various settings in which they work are described below. For further information on careers in psychology, you can send for the following APA publications which are available from the American Psychological Association Careers in Psychology and Career Opportunities for Psychologists: Expanding and Emerging Areas.
Clinical Psychologist
The primary focus of the clinical psychologist is the diagnosis and treatment of mild to severe psychopathological problems. Clinical psychologists may also engage in clinical research with children, adolescents, and adults in such settings as universities, hospitals, community mental health centers, outpatient programs and clinics, day care centers, schools, prisons, industry, and private practice. Besides conducting research, the clinician may function as a consultant, supervisor, or administrator in any of the above locations. Nearly half of all clinical psychologists that have PhDs work in educational settings such as universities; the remainder work in direct-service settings such as hospitals, clinics, and private practice. Clinical psychology programs approved by the American Psychological Association include a broad background in general psychology (e.g., perception, social psychology, developmental psychology, statistics) and courses specifically oriented toward the clinical degree, such as practica in assessment and therapy. A year's internship in a clinical setting is required for the doctorate. Although in most states individuals with masters and bachelors degrees may not establish a private practice, they may work under the supervision of a doctoral-level psychologist. Before considering a master's degree in clinical psychology as your final objective, you should speak with informed clinical psychologists in your own state and investigate current licensing laws. Admission to clinical programs at the doctoral level is extremely competitive. Of all the specialty areas in psychology, this area appears most popular among applicants.
Counseling Psychologist
Counseling psychologists are oriented to assessing and helping people with normal life-span issues such as career development and adjustment, marriage and family Counseling, and a variety of other issues associated with problems encountered by most people during their life span. These psychologists provide assessment of and counseling for personal, career, and educational problems, especially in university counseling centers and community mental health centers. Counseling psychologists also conduct research on normal personality development and career development. Over half of all counseling psychologists hold positions in educational settings, many of them in university and college counseling centers. Most of the remainder are located in community mental health centers and general medical and surgical hospitals, especially within the Veterans Administration. There is an increasing tendency to restrict the title "counseling psychologist" to those holding doctoral degrees. Graduate programs in counseling psychology arc one of the most competitive graduate specialties in psychology.
Developmental Psychologist
Developmental psychologists study physical growth and behavioral changes beginning at the prenatal and infancy stages and continuing through childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Observational as well as experimental methods are used to investigate such areas as aging, basic Teaming processes, cognition, perception, language acquisition, socialization, sex roles, and abnormal changes in development. Most developmental psychologists work in university settings, teaching and doing research. They may also consult with public school systems, hospitals, and clinics or provide direct services to children, families, and the elderly. A Ph.D. or EdD is usually required for employment in university settings. Persons with bachelors or masters level training often work in applied settings such as day-care centers and in programs with youth groups.
Educational Psychologist
Educational psychologists study how people of all ages learn. They conduct basic research on topics related to the teaming of reading, math, writing, and science. In addition, educational psychologists are also involved in the design of instructional methods, including computer software, training teachers, and assessing teaching effectiveness. Although most educational psychologists are employed in universities, in both psychology and education departments, other employment settings include the federal and state government, especially in school systems, and business, designing and evaluating employee training programs.
Environmental Psychologist
Environmental psychologists investigate the interrelationship between people, and their physical environment. They study the effects on behavior of physical factors such as pollution and crowding, and of sociophysical settings such as hospitals, parks, housing developments, and work environments, as ,ell as the effects of behavior on the environment. They also engage in applied activities such as evaluating work environments or assessing the psychological impact of environmental changes. This is a rapidly expanding field in psychology.
Experimental/Cognitive Psychologist
Experimental psychology is a general title applied to psychologists who teach about and do research on a variety of fundamental behavioral processes such as learning, memory, language, motivation, perception, sensory processes, and the biological bases of behavior of both human beings and animals. This content and the emphasis on controlled conditions and observations in laboratory (and sometimes natural) settings characterize experimental psychology. (Scientific methodology, the research tool of the experimental psychologist, is also used in other fields of psychology.) The majority of experimental psychologists are employed in university settings; most of the remainder are employed in government and industrial research centers. A Ph.D. is almost always required for advancement and mobility in the field.
Industrial/Organizational Psychologist
In general, industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology is concerned with problems and issues relating to the behavior of people in work settings. I/O psychologists are both scientists and practitioners in the sense that many applied problems in organizational behavior require the collection of original research data under controlled conditions. Some topics addressed by I/O psychology are: organizational structure and change; employee productivity and satisfaction; selection, placement, training, and development of personnel; and the interaction between machines and the human operator. Some I/O psychologists that specialize in particular subfields are consumer psychologists (a focus on consumer reactions to a company's services or product), engineering psychologists (primarily concerned with the interaction between the people and their work environment), and personnel psychologists (a focus on the selection and evaluation of personnel). I/O psychologists are employed in colleges and universities, private industry, applied research firms, government agencies, and private consulting firms. Basic preparation for I/O psychologists is completion of an MA or Ph.D. in a recognized graduate program.
Neuropsychologist and Psychobiologist
The psychobiologist studies the interrelationship between biology and behavior. Various specialized directions in biopsychology include psychopharmacology and mental health, behavior disorders and rehabilitation, comparative psychology and zoology, genetic approaches to behavior, prenatal and postnatal development, and learning and brain functioning. Psychobiologists and neuropsychologist conduct research in universities, hospitals, and pharmaceutical laboratories and usually have a Ph.D. degree and may require additional postdoctoral training. Neuropsychologists may also diagnose and treat disorders related to the central nervous system. Over 70% are employed in educational settings, usually as teachers as well as researchers.
School Psychologist
School psychologists are skilled in the assessment and facilitation of the intellectual, social, and emotional development of children. Their skills include the administration of intelligence and personality tests, interviewing of parents and teachers, and determining adaptive behavior levels of children. The school psychologist develops recommendations for children with special needs, and functions as a consultant to teachers in the resolution of a variety of classroom problems. Depending on training and opportunities, school psychologists have various functions in the schools, which may include individual psychoeducational assessment and remediation, in-service training of teachers, counseling and psychotherapy with children, and consultation and organization development with various levels of school personnel. The majority of psychologists in this field complete their formal education at the 60-credit master's level.
Social Psychologist
The social psychologist investigates in the laboratory the influence of cultural and social factors on behavior. Some of the research has focused on the areas of social learning, social perception, motivation, attitude formation and change, mass media effects, group dynamics, aggression, helping behavior, and leadership. A social psychologist may teach at the high school or university level and may conduct research on social problems in almost any location. As with most of the other research psychologists, more than 70% are employed in university settings. A Ph.D. is almost always required.
Some Emerging Specialties in Psychology
Family Psychology - Psychologists who are interested in issues related to the prevention and treatment of family conflict and the maintenance of normal family functioning. They may be involved in the design and implementation of family related programs (e.g., marital enrichment, parent education) or in providing treatment for family related problems (e.g., child abuse, sexual dysfunction).
Forensic Psychology and Psychology and the Law - Individuals in this field are interested in examining legal issues from a psychological perspective (e.g., juror behavior). Forensic psychologists are active in the applied and clinical aspects of psychology and law. They are often have graduate training in both psychology and the law. Forensic psychologists might be involved in making recommendations concerning child custody, evaluating a defendant’s mental competence to stand trail, or counseling inmates and probationers.
Health Psychology - Practitioners and researchers who are concerned with the promotion and maintenance of good health. Health psychologists may design and conduct programs to help individuals improve their health (e.g., stopping smoking, weight loss, stress management) or conduct research to study conditions and activities that contribute to health and illness.
Rehabilitation Psychology - Rehabilitation psychologists are researchers and practitioners who work with individuals suffering from a physical deprivation (e.g., birth defect, stroke).